tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56311404825939085912024-03-20T22:08:08.872-07:00Health Aspects of DisasterHello, my name is Eryn Wright and I am a student at the University of Queensland currently undertaking a master's of international public health (or MIPH). This blog has been created to act as a learning portfolio that will document my progress through the course "Health Aspects of Disaster", which I am completing as part of my postgraduate degree. I sincerely hope that it makes for an interesting read and look forward to receiving feedback.travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.comBlogger25125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-80621995534839340012015-01-18T11:08:00.001-08:002021-01-11T06:48:41.332-08:00My Final Post: The Key Points That I Will Remember About Disaster Management<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">For my last post,
I’ve decided to put together a summary of the key pieces of information that I
have taken away from this course regarding disaster impacts and management. In particular, I wanted to make sure that I
included topics and any other bits that I did not have a chance to discuss in
my other posts. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Disaster can
either occur as a result of natural process, man-made ones or a combination of
both (hybrid).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><u>Prior to
disaster</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Appropriate prevention
and disaster preparedness activities are the most effective and efficient ways
to avoid the significant impacts of disasters on health, livelihoods and
infrastructure.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><u>Disaster relief</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Organisations
should never enter a country to provide aid without being expressly asked by
its government, unless there is no stable government and/or the United Nations
declares a state of disaster.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Aid organisations
should operate through and in conjunction with the local whenever and however
possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Local governments should be
encouraged to lead the efforts and supported in doing so. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The specifics of the
organisation’s role and responsibilities should be explicitly outlined and agreed
to by the agency and host country early on (although this might be amended
depending on the circumstances).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A time
frame for the completion of activities should also be established and agreed
upon.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It is important
to promote the autonomy and independence of the host nation and its
people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do not treat the populations
receiving assistance like they are helpless and get them involved in response
efforts and activities as much as possible.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Proceed in
accordance with all applicable international and domestic laws as well as the
code of ethics of your organisation and any other rules or agreements that are
in place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Response efforts
should also follow the rights and guidelines of the Humanitarian Charter and
the Protection principles outlined in the Sphere Handbook.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ensure that everyone has equal access to
assistance and security.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Avoid any
activities or behaviors that may compromise the dignity of individuals or put
them at risk of further danger.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">When providing
assistance, be sure to follow the core standards outlined by the Sphere project
in the Sphere Handbook.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some key
standards are<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Water: </b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Minimum
15 liters of water per person per day for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene
and house cleaning.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Households
should be no further than 500 meters from a water point.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Wait
time at water source should not exceed 30 minutes.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">250
people per tap, 500 people per hand pump and 400 people per single-user open
well</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">(Sphere 2011)</span><!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Hygiene and
Sanitation:</b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Provision
of feminine hygiene products for menstruation</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Water
containers (two 10-20 liters containers per household, one for storage and one
for transport)</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">250
grams of bathing soap and 200 grams of laundry soap per person per month.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">One
toilet for no more than 20 people and toilets are no more than 50 meters away
(although the number of people per toilet changes in public settings, see page
130 of the Sphere Handbook). The different types of toilets for
different situations are outlined on page 109.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(Sphere 2011)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Food and
Nutrition:</b></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Minimum
nutritional requirements for a population include: 2,100 kcals per person per
day, 10% of which is protein and 17% of which is fat.</span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Adequate micronutrient intake is also
essential.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Ready-to-Use
supplements such as plumpy sup (peanut-based paste) can be given to children
affected by or at risk of malnutrition to increase their caloric intake.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(Sphere 2011)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Shelter:</b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">People
must be provided with a covered living space that offers protection from the elements
outside including precipitation, wind and disease vectors. Other amenities such as toilet facilities
should be close by.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Shelters
should be appropriate to the season and situational context (i.e. temporary
shelter, transitional shelter or permanent shelter).</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Whenever
possible, people should be involved in the construction of their own shelters.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(Sphere 2011)</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Non-Food Items:</b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Blankets,
clothing, fuel, lighting and cooking and cleaning supplies, etc should be
provided to help maintain the health and dignity of individuals and provide
comfort.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">The
items and the materials they are made of should be appropriate to the
situation, which may require some consideration.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(Sphere 2011)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Health Action: </b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Health
assessments (usually performed in the initial relief wave), mass vaccinations
and the management of communicable diseases and any other serious threats to
health.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">There
should be at least:</span></li>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">22
qualified health workers (doctors, nurses and midwives) per 10,000 people.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">One
doctor per 50,000.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">One
nurse and one midwife per 10,000.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">One
community health worker per 1,000.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Clinicians
should not regularly see more than 50 patients a day.</span></li>
</ul>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">Field
hospitals may be necessary if existing hospitals are too damaged and mobile
clinics may be required for reaching isolated communities.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-indent: -18pt;">If
measles vaccination coverage in children aged 9 months to 5 years appears to be
less than 90%, is unknown or not clear, a vaccination campaign should be
carried out. Priority should be given to
those aged 6 to 59 months, but vaccination coverage could be widened to reach
children up to 15 years of age.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(Sphere 2011)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">It is also
important to address:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Sexual and
reproductive health</b>, including everything from contraception to the prevention
and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) to treatment
for victims of rape and/or assault.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>The mental health</b>
of disaster victims and witnesses to facilitate their recovery and help them
return to being productive and healthy individuals.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Severe injuries
and long-term disabilities</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is no use
fixing someone’s broken hip if they do not receive the therapy to help him or
her return to an adequate level of functioning afterwards.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Chronic diseases</b>
such as diabetes and heart disease, which can complicate and hinder the
recovery of patients and the population as a whole.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>HIV/AIDS
prevalence</b> will be a concern for relief efforts, as it will make people more
vulnerable to various conditions including malnutrition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those infected may suffer from discrimination
because of their status.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, if not
handled properly, the situation could also exacerbate transmission among the
population and humanitarian workers.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Family
unity</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Getting families back together so
that they can look out for each other and care for each other as they recover.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Important/vulnerable
groups to look out for:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Children</b> –
particularly vulnerable to the impacts of disasters because they are still
growing and developing, have few resources and little advocating power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are also vulnerable to abduction if
separated from their families.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>The elderly</b> -
their age often means that they cannot move as fast as those who are younger to
escape disaster scenarios.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They may have
various conditions such as Alzheimer’s, dementia or osteoporosis for which they
may require medication.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those conditions
will make them even more vulnerable overall and may make the recovery process
harder for them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Older people are also
often viewed as being more expendable because of their age and the fact that
they have “lived a good long life”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Women</b> – are more at
risk of suffering from severe impacts during a disaster (they may have to look
after the children and therefore struggle to take care of themselves).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are also at increased risk of sexual and/or
gender-based violence.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Transgender, homosexual and bisexual people</b> – are at increased risk of discrimination and violent
attacks.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>People with
disabilities or special needs</b> – are at increased risk because they may not be able to help
themselves as easily as others during a disaster.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it is imperative that they are
treated the same way anyone else would be (i.e. no <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Ethnic or cultural minorities</b>
– could be at risk of discrimination and/or violence, particularly during
conflict or very culturally tense situations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Refugees and
displaced persons</b> – are extremely vulnerable to a number of problems including
the spread of communicable diseases, violence (possibly conflict or
ethnicity-related), discrimination, mental distress, malnutrition, diarrheal
diseases, etc.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Displaced individuals and
refugees may remain so for decades.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Humanitarian staff</b> – are vulnerable to communicable diseases, physical and mental exhaustion
(or burnout), psychological and physical trauma, violence and abduction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is the responsibility of aid agencies to adhere to best practices
when it comes keeping staff members safe and healthy (of body and of mind). This is particularly helpful if you want staff members to stay or come back to work for your
organisation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They should be monitored
for various conditions, be offered counseling and appropriate rest periods and
opportunities to grow professionally.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
turn, staff members are expected to follow the rules and regulation established
by their organisation to ensure that they are providing assistance in an
appropriate and safe manner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This also
helps protect the organisation’s reputation and their future ability to provide
humanitarian aid.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It is beneficial
to, whenever possible, incorporate strategies that will help with the long-term
recovery in the relief stage.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Successfully and
efficiently providing these services will depend strongly on good organization,
preparation, communication and coordination within and between agencies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will also rely heavily on the logistics of
getting the right resources and people to the right place at the right time
safely (which is why logisticians are so highly valued).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Red Cross Red Crescent has a great
website for browsing the emergency relief items that they have available in
their catalogue:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/logistics/procurement/catalogue-/">http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/logistics/procurement/catalogue-/</a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><u>Post-disaster</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Recovery is the
least researched but longest part of disaster response.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There can easily be gaps that form in the
provision of services during the transition from relief to recovery as external
assistance begins to pull out of the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is important for more permanent local service providers to try and
fill these gaps as soon as possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
is generally a long and arduous process that receives a lot less funding than
the initial relief phase, yet it is the most important in terms of getting
populations to return to normal life and building resiliency in case of future
disasters.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A final word...<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">This course,
while at times overwhelming, has really opened my eyes to the various health
impacts of disaster in addition to all of the factors that need to be
considered when preparing for and managing a crisis. In the end, I rated all of my course objectives 4-5 out of 5. The only thing that I still feel uncomfortable with was the in-class disaster response assignment. Many of my group members were confused about what we were expected to do, which clearly showed when it came time to present. I thought that I had managed to figure out my section, but as the marks and feedback were given for the combined group effort, I am still unsure about whether or not I was in fact successful. I feel </span></span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">all of the information that I
have taken in will be of great use to me if I ever find myself working in a
disaster scenario or in a disaster-related sector (i.e. emergency preparedness,
relief or recovery). However, I think until I actually am put in that situation, it is not possible for me to know how prepared I truly am. My guess is that reality would be somewhat different to what we did in class or read about.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">References:</span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Sphere Project 2011, <i>Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, 3rd edn, The Sphere Project, Geneva.</span><br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Eryn</div>
</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-21016621334593889782015-01-17T18:03:00.003-08:002015-09-04T20:22:53.383-07:00Ethics and the Use of ImagesWhile reading the course study guide I came across a section that mentioned the ethics behind using images of human suffering to raise awareness and funds. The section also included a reading on the topic.<br />
<br />
This particular topic has been of interest to me for a number of years, ever since my first trip to Africa in 2009. I went to Ghana with an organisation called Unite for Sight as part of an internship for my undergraduate degree and prior to my acceptance into the program and subsequent deployment I had to do a training course. The training included readings, assignments, work with a professional optometrist as well as a final exam. Included within the training material was a great deal of information regarding the organisation’s code of ethics and in particular, their stance on taking of photographs in the field and the use of those images.<br />
<br />
Looking back, I could not be more grateful for the insight they gave me. They instilled in me the belief that photographs should be taken with the utmost consideration for the people and circumstances being photographed. Not to put too fine a point on it, they are still people, suffering or not. They are not works of art in a museum or animals in a zoo and preserving their dignity is not only imperative, but also part of respecting their fundamental rights as human beings under international law. I was taught that unless I truly believed that a photograph would greatly benefit them and/or the situation of their population through a significant increase in funds, I should not take it. The article by Calain appears to come to the same conclusion. As Calain states, the ethics involved of providing medical care are inherently at odds with the normal practices used to obtain support for humanitarian aid (2013). While it is important to stand witness and advocate for the needs of the populations requiring assistance, the value of using images to do so in each situation should be thoughtfully and carefully weighed against the potential impacts on human dignity. Unless documenting circumstances of suffering will lead to considerable benefits that will help to improve the situation, health professionals should avoid taking and sharing photographs of people suffering. <br />
<br />
Unite for Sight also taught me to wait for consent from the individual(s) or their parents/guardians and to try to make sure that I avoided taking photographs of emotionally or physically painful circumstances that they did not want documented. After all, I was there as someone providing a health service, not as a journalist. Even if I had been a journalist... Just because someone else has employed you to take photos and write stories of people does not give you carte blanche to violate the rights of individuals to privacy, consent and dignity. The end (which is often to get people to notice that people are suffering and having their rights violated) does not justify the means if you are also causing them pain and violating their right to not be photographed (or their family member's right, i.e. children or someone who is unconscious or has passed away). In my case, I was seeing some people at their most vulnerable and taking a photograph of that would have been a violation of their trust in the organisation I represented and myself as a volunteer. Ultimately, I began asking myself: “Would I be alright with someone taking this photo of me? Would I feel okay or happy with the way my life and my situation are being portrayed? Can I say for certain that taking this photo will lead to a significant positive change for that person and their people? Is this photo necessary or beneficial?". That line of questioning has been my litmus test for taking photos ever since. But above else, the decision belongs to the individual and/or their family, especially in a sensitive situation. If they say no, then it's no dice. That is the Golden rule.<br />
<br />
In my opinion, the ethics of using images has never been more important or pertinent in history than it is now with social media and the ease with which images can be shared around the globe. Having spent a total of over five months in Africa working with volunteer organisations, I have realised that not everyone understands the value of taking a moment to think before they point their camera, click and share. At one point I watched as teachers working at a nearby school walked through the hospital that I was working at, cameras in hand, photographing everything and everyone in sight. They spent no more than a half an hour at the hospital and when I had asked what they were doing there, they said they had simply wanted to “see what the hospital looked like and take photos so they could show people back home”. Ultimately, there was no benefit for the patients to being photographed in the vulnerable states they were in. Had I been the outspoken woman that I am now, I would have pointed out to them that there were people dying and suffering in the hospital and that taking photos of patients would not be acceptable in their own countries so why should it be anywhere else? For some of the patients and their families, it was one of the worst days of their lives. The hospital was a place to receive care and treatment, not a tourist attraction. To this day, not standing up for the patients in that situation remains one of my biggest regrets.<br />
<br />
In short, the point is that you should not have to violate someone's human rights to get other people to care about human rights being violated.<br />
<br />
Eryn<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Calain P 2013, ‘Ethics and images of suffering bodies in humanitarian medicine’, <i>Social Science & Medicine</i>, vol. 98, no. 2013, pp. 278-285.<br />
<br />
Eryn<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-74527568807981023872015-01-17T05:36:00.000-08:002015-01-22T23:15:02.704-08:00Final Assignment Plan<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -72pt;">
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The following is the plan that I have put together for my final assignment in this course with amendments inspired by the feedback that I received included at the end.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Essay Plan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Title:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Foreseen Disaster: A Critical
Analysis of the International Response in Relation to the 2011 Famine in
Somalia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Question: What was the international response to the growing
food crisis in Somalia, how was it influenced by contextual factors and how did
it shape the course of the disaster?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Introduction (200 words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Poor back-to-back rainy seasons in 2010 and 2011
caused severe drought and reduced harvests in the eastern Horn of Africa
affecting an estimated 13 million people (Slim 2012).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The responses to the food shortages in Ethiopia
and Kenya enabled both countries to prevent catastrophic consequences (Slim
2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>However, various factors including political
insecurity, armed conflict and operating restrictions complicated aid efforts
and exacerbated the crisis in Somalia (Checchi & Robinson 2013; Slim 2012).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Despite early warnings of forthcoming disaster,
the situation continued to deteriorate without substantial intervention for 11
months before famine was declared.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
delayed response to the emergency has been deemed responsible for additional
casualties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Ultimately, the 2011 famine in Somalia resulted
in approximately 258,000 deaths, a devastating rise in malnutrition rates and 417,000 displaced persons (Checchi & Robinson 2013; Lautze et al.
2012).</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Overview of Events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Timeline (250 words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">August
2010, the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) sent out the first
warning of a probable drought in the area.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Poor rainy seasons from October to December 2010
(second or third in a row for some areas) resulted in poor harvests in January,
increased cereal prices and decreased livestock production.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Warnings from Food Security and Nutritional Analysis
Unit (FSNAU) and other organizations continued for 11 months.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Poor rainy season again from April to June 2011
led to crop failures and excess livestock mortality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Drought in the area worst in 60 years; food
prices reached a record high.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>UN declares famine in two areas of Somalia on
June 20<sup>th</sup>, 2011.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Famine declared in three additional areas on
August 3<sup>rd</sup>, 2011 and one more on September 5<sup>th</sup>, 2011.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Increases in aid, good October and December
rains in 2011 and lower food prices led to the official end of the famine on
February 3<sup>rd</sup>, 2012.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Impacts of the Disaster (250
words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>An estimated 258,000 deaths.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Widespread malnutrition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Long-term health and economic impacts of
malnutrition, especially for children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> 420,000</span></span> million displaced persons (253,000 left for
Kenya and Ethiopia, 167,000 were internally displaced).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Outbreaks of cholera, measles and shigella,
particularly among Somali famine refugees in Ethiopia and Kenya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Violence against Somali women fleeing to refugee
camps in Kenya. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Insecurity in refugee camps.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Psychological and emotional impacts of the famine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Response (300 words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Very little was done before the declaration of
famine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>After the declaration, the anti-terror-related aid
restrictions were lifted and there was a sharp and marked increase in funding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Amount of funding raised was $1.3 billion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Organisations involved (Islamic States and
humanitarian groups, NGOs and UN agencies)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Details of cluster system, the UN’s Consolidated
Appeal (CAP) and aid distribution in Somalia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Various methods of aid used including cash and
vouchers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Context of Response (700 words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Historical and Political Environment<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>History of conflict, drought, crippling poverty and
lack of stable government made Somalia particularly vulnerable to disaster.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Previous famine in 1991-1992 caused by conflict,
200,000 deaths deemed preventable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Al-Shabbab presence controlling areas creating a
dangerous environment for aid workers and interfering with efforts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>European and U.S. anti-terror restrictions were
imposed and organizations began pulling out of the area because of the conflict
and fear of accusations of aiding terrorist forces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, these actions reduced the country’s
capacity to react to the drought and rising food prices.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Economic Factors<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Global recession affected availability of
resources and the willingness of donors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Donors and organizations limited their funding
due to anti-terror initiatives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Social Factors<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Other events were occurring around the world at
the same time that received more attention (i.e. political uprisings in Egypt,
Libya and Cote d’Ivoire, the Japanese earthquake and tsunami as well as the
separation of South Sudan).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>There was a general sense of complacency about
humanitarian issues in Somalia, meaning that widespread concern and action were
not generated until circumstances were dire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Organisations focused on distributing aid in
circumstances where they could clearly see results.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Critique of Response<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Successes of the Systems (200
words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Early warning systems functioned well and recognised the forthcoming disaster well in advance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Once famine was declared, the international
community worked relatively quickly and effectively to better the situation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Intervention methods eventually used were appropriate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Shortcomings of the Systems (400
words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>No action was taken to prevent famine despite early
warnings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Delays in announcing famine: conditions were
worse than the famine threshold at the time of declaration in impacted areas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Limited access to areas and lack of humanitarian
presence on the ground.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Organisations and countries lacked faith in
fieldworker reports and analysts’ warnings that circumstances would be worse
than a “normal bad year” and were more concerned with politics than the
humanitarian agenda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>There was no real plan for action once famine
was declared without the World Food Program (WFP) present in Somalia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Lessons Learned (300 words)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The delay in the response to the growing food
shortage and foreseen outcomes ultimately contributed to the course of the
disaster by failing to prevent the famine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The need to continue improving and utilising
early warning systems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Most importantly, ensuring that action follows
early warnings before disaster hits in circumstances when famine is imminent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Islamic States and organisations were able to
function more easily in Somalia than Christian groups.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Conclusion (200 words)</span></div>
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<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 74.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Summary of the famine, response and consequences
in Somalia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 74.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Likelihood of more frequent extreme events
including drought and food shortages in the future due to climate change.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 74.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Statement that famine is avoidable with
appropriate intervention.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 74.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Considerations for improving response (perhaps
lowering the threshold at which situation is considered a catastrophe).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 74.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Importance of learning from the 2011 famine in
Somalia to better future responses.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">References:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Bailey, R 2013, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Managing Famine
Risk: Linking Early Warning to Early Action</i>, A Chatham House Report, The
Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, viewed 29 December 2014, <
http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Energy%2C%20Environment%20and%20Development/0413r_earlywarnings.pdf>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">BBC 2011, <i>Somali famine spreads to three more areas says UN</i>,
viewed 17 December 2014, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14394659>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Checchi, F & Robinson, WC 2013, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mortality
among populations of southern and central Somalia affected by severe food
insecurity and famine during 2010-2012</i>, the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the Famine Early Warning Systems
Network (FEWS NET), Rome, Washington, viewed 17 December 2014, < http://www.fsnau.org/in-focus/study-report-mortality-among-populations-southern-and-central-somalia-affected-severe-food-><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">FAO, IFAD & WFP 2014, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The State
of Food Insecurity in the World 2014, Strengthening the enabling environment
for food security and nutrition</i>, FAO, Rome, viewed 29 December 2014, < http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Haan, N, Devereux, S & Maxwell, D 2012, ‘Global implications of
Somalia 2011 for famine prevention, mitigation and response’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp.
74-79.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Hillbruner, C & Moloney, G 2012, ‘When early warning is not
enough-Lessons learned from the 2011 Somalia Famine’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 20-28.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">IPC Global Partners 2008, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Integrated
Food Security Phase Classification Technical Manual</i>, Version 1.1, FAO,
Rome, viewed 28 December, 2014, <http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/i0275e/i0275e.pdf>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Lautze, S, Bell, W, Alinovi, L & Russo, L 2012, ‘Early warning, late
response (again): The 2011 famine in Somalia’, <i>Global Food Security</i>,
vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 43-49.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Menkhaus, K 2012, ‘No access: Critical bottlenecks in the 2011 Somali
famine’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food Security</i>, vol.
1, no. 1, pp. 29-35.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Majid, N & McDowell, S 2012, ‘Hidden dimensions of the Somalia
famine’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food Security</i>, vol.
1, no. 1, pp. 36-42.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Maxwell, D & Fiztpatrick, M 2012, ‘The 2011 Somalia famine: Context,
causes and complications’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food
Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 5-12.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">McCloskey Rebelo, E, Pros, M-A, Renk, S, Guduri, S & Hailey, P 2012,
‘Nutritional response to the 2011 famine in Somalia’, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 64-73.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Penuel, KB, Statler, M & Hagen, R 2013, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Encyclopedia of Crisis Management</i>, SAGE Publications, Inc., viewed
29 December, 2014, DOI
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.4135/9781452275956, (SAGE
knowledge).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Salama, P, Moloney, G, Bilukha, OO, Talley, L, Maxwell, D, Hailey, P,
Hillbruner, C, Masese-Mwirigi, L, Odundo, E & Golden, MH 2012, ‘Famine in
Somalia: Evidence for a declaration’, <i>Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no.
1, pp. 13-19.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Seal, A & Bailey, R 2013, ‘The 2011 Famine in Somalia: lessons learnt
from a failed response?’, <i>Conflict and Health</i>, vol. 7, no. 22, pp. 1-5.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Slim, H 2012, <i>IASC Real-Time Evaluation of the Humanitarian Response
to the Horn of Africa Drought Crisis in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya</i>,
Synthesis Report, Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Amendments: </span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
After reading the feedback on my plan from my peers and my professor, I wanted to include a little bit more information here.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">My thesis sentence was absent in the first draft so I have put two potential ones together:</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">"Political, social and economic factors severely influenced the international response to the growing food crisis in Somalia, which as a result, failed to avert famine and thus contributed to the development of the disaster."</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">or</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">"</span></span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Political, social and economic factors significantly delayed any real action on from the international community in response to the growing food crisis in Somalia, which ultimately allowed the famine to take place."</span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">I have not decided which one that I prefer just yet. The point that I am trying to get across is that because of political, social and economic factors and despite ample warning, the international community failed to stop the famine in Somalia from occurring. Ultimately, the international community is partly responsible for the situation deteriorating to the point of disaster.</span></span><br />
<br />
<div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A colleague of mine also mentioned that I should include more information about what the international response actually was and I thought this was a good idea. In truth, there was no real response other than warnings of an impending disaster until famine was actually declared. The only thing that I could find was that the WPF increased the number of soup kitchens they had in Mogadishu from 16 to 23 and nutritional screeners were introduced to each of them in the lead up to the famine. Unfortunately, it was not until the state of famine was declared that the international community really jumped into gear. So here are some of the stats that I could find about the response:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">• After the declaration, $1.3 billion dollars was raised for Somalia. $800 million passed through the UN’s Consolidated Appeal (CAP system) and $50 million of which came from Saudi Arabia alone. Turkey also contributed $365 million to the efforts of Somalia utilising a new model founded on the principle of solidarity between Muslim countries.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">• The money raised for Ethiopia and Kenya also had to be used to support the Somali refugees who fled to those countries.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">• </span></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">Feeding sites (wet and dry) were established at the main points along the migration routes near the Kenyan and Ethiopian borders. </span></span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; text-indent: -18pt;">Wet feeding sites provided porridge made with fortified blended flour and oil 2-3 times per day as well as hygiene promotion, de-worming, diarrhoea treatment, vitamin A supplementation and acute malnutrition screening. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; text-indent: -18pt;">At dry sites, families were given High Energy Biscuit (HEB) and children under the age of five were provided with Ready-to-Use Supplementary Food (RUSF) (i.e. plumpy sup)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">•<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>According to McCloskey Rebelo et al. (2012), the programs were targeted at 4 different groups: people who were fleeing, people in Mogadishu, people in rural areas affected by drought and other vulnerable groups.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">• The WFP stated that it had provided 1.5 million people with food assistance in the year following the declaration</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">• In July 2012, the WFP also stated that 15,000 people in central areas were now receiving food vouchers to buy food in the market. This is interesting because the WFP was initially reluctant to use food vouchers prior to the declaration of famine, but once it was declared the WFP could no longer deny the use of that option.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">Obviously this is a great deal of information about the response and it is unlikely that I will be able to use all of it, but I do believe that it will be beneficial to use some and as a result I'm pretty grateful for the feedback that I received.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Eryn</span></div>
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travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-47441058468135093152015-01-15T21:00:00.000-08:002015-01-17T06:09:33.447-08:00Trends in Hydrological Disasters WorldwideWhile reviewing the WHO Collaborating Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, I decided to focus on the trends in hydrological disasters around the world.<br />
<br />
The graph denoting the number of disasters recorded from 1900 to 2012 showed noticeable increases in the number of hydrological disasters beginning in 1965. The number of events has continued to grow quite steadily, reaching the highest levels recorded in the last 12 years displayed on the graph (roughly between year 2000 to 2012).<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KylPrq6vKeY/VLfNvG5Ld6I/AAAAAAAAAkE/6V8vqAJRsf0/s1600/htyrxw5%2B-%2BImgur.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KylPrq6vKeY/VLfNvG5Ld6I/AAAAAAAAAkE/6V8vqAJRsf0/s1600/htyrxw5%2B-%2BImgur.jpg" height="492" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;">(EM-DAT 2012b)</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Within the classification of hydrological disasters, floods (flash floods and storm and coastal surges) and storms (tropical and local) have all noticeably increased while the number of unspecified hydrological events have decreased.<br />
<br />
Other graphs also showed that while the number of people affected by hydrological has increased in tandem with the rise in the frequency of disasters, the number of people killed by that group of disasters has remained quite low. In fact, the number of people killed saw a sharp increase around 1960 but dropped back down to a low level afterwards and has stayed around that number ever since. The graphs displaying the cost of the damage of all disasters has also shown steep increase of late, with the two most expensive being the Honshu Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina, both of which were hydrological disasters.<br />
<br />
These trends could be interpreted in a variety of ways. I believe that the number of all hydrological disasters (floods and storms) has been increasing in large part due to climate change and will continue to either remain high or increase even higher. I also believe that climate change is causing the scale and intensity of hydrological disasters to become more severe as well. I believe that the increase in frequency and intensity of hydrological disasters has contributed to increase in the number of people affected. I also think that urbanisation has resulted in more densely populated areas (more people in one spot that will be impacted if a disaster hits) which has added to the increase in the number of people affected. On the other hand, I believe that fewer people are now dying as a result of hydrological disasters due to our superior notification systems, evacuation protocols, storm preparation and emergency response capabilities (first response, paramedical and medical training, knowledge and experience).<br />
<br />
The increase in the cost of damage due to hydrological disasters has likely been the result of a combination of factors, including urbanisation (an increase in the number, size and cost of buildings in one concentrated area) and the increase in the severity of events (which is causing more damage). The graphs relating to costs are slightly confusing to read however, as they do not state whether the cost is nominal or adjusted for inflation. If the figures have not been adjusted for inflation, the increase in the cost of damages could be due in part to the rise in the cost of living over time.<br />
<br />
In my opinion, the decrease in the number of unspecified hydrological events has nothing to do with a decrease in frequency of disasters and everything to do with improvements in our ability to monitor, identify and classify exactly what kind of disaster is occurring.<br />
<br />
I believe that these trends will continue and even worsen if the world continues on its current crash course trajectory with climate change.<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
EM-DAT 2012a, <i>Disaster Trends</i>, viewed 11 January 2015, <http://www.emdat.be/disaster-trends>.<br />
<br />
EM-DAT 2012b, <i>Number of natural disasters reported 1900-2012</i>, viewed 11 January 2015, <http://imgur.com/a/KdyTV#6>.<br />
<br />
Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-49330721871545320042015-01-15T20:30:00.000-08:002015-01-14T14:36:33.984-08:00Protracted RefugeesWhat is protracted displacement?<br />
<br />
Protracted displacement is the prolonged (lasting more than five years) displacement of refugee populations. Initially, the term applied only to populations of 25,000 or more, but the UNHCR has since amended their definition by removing that criteria (Loescher & Milner 2012). The average length of time of displacement for protracted refugees is now almost 20 years (Loescher & Milner 2012). As of 2009, 30 major situations of protracted refugee displacement were identified worldwide, although these did not include internally displaced populations (Loescher & Milner 2012).<br />
<br />
In these circumstances, the displacement is no longer in the acute emergency phase, but there are no foreseeable resolutions or plans to address the issue (Loescher & Milner 2012). One of the criticisms of the Sphere Standards has been their focus on dealing with the acute phase of an emergency involving displacement without including policies, guidelines or strategies for the long-term (Dunham 2014).<br />
<br />
There are many examples of protracted displacement around the world, one of which I have personally witnessed. While in Ghana working for a mobile eye clinic, I visited a Liberian refugee camp. I was shocked to hear that some of them had been there for roughly 20 years. Listening to their stories was incredibly humbling. One lady who had been a politician in Liberia told me about how she was forced to walk through the desert while looking up at the sky for days at gun point. They had taken her away from her husband and children and had no idea where they were. The sun damage to her eyes resulted in cataracts that badly affected her vision. When she finally escaped and reached the refugee camp in Ghana, the eye clinic that I was working with removed her cataracts and gave her a job as their local representative in the camp. She had not returned to Liberia since, which had been around 18 years at the time I spoke to her in 2009. She was still too afraid and she had no idea what had happened to her husband and children. <br />
<br />
Ghana is not the only place where Liberians have remained in refuge since the civil conflicts that plagued their nation from1989-1996 and 1999-2003. According to the UNHCR, there are still 62,000 Liberian refugees in protracted displacement across West Africa including Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone in addition to Ghana (The PRS Project 2012). <br />
<br />
I was also interested to see that in 2005, there were 48,000 refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in Burundi and 59,000 from the DRC housed in the Congo, there were also 98,000 and 45,000 refugees from Angola and the Sudan respectively who has actually fled to and were residing in the DRC (UNHCR 2006). In my opinion, this highlights the struggle of refugees in regions like Africa and the Middle East, where there are so many volatile situations. With limited options, refugees who do not have the resources to travel to a safer location further away, can end up fleeing to another country that is or may become plagued by conflict as well.<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Dunham J 2014, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br />
Loescher G & Milner J 2012, <i>Protracted Refugee Situations</i>, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford University, Oxford, viewed 13 January 2015, <http://www.prsproject.org/protracted-refugee-situations/>.<br />
<br />
The PRS Project 2012, <i>Liberians (in Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Ghana, and Sierra Leone)</i>, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford University, Oxford, viewed 13 January 2015, <http://www.prsproject.org/case-studies/contemporary/liberians/>.<br />
<br />
UNHCR 2006, <i>The State of The World's Refugees 2006: Human Displacement in the New Millennium</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, viewed 13 January 2015, <http://www.unhcr.org/4a4dc1a89.html>.<br />
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Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-43354530632976504172015-01-15T14:34:00.000-08:002015-01-15T13:39:10.218-08:00Disaster Management: Post-Disaster Health System StrengtheningRecovery, as was stated in an early post, is the longest, least-researched and often most neglected part of the disaster management process. Yet, it is profoundly important. The resources allocated to the acute emergency phase cannot go on indefinitely as that would be unsustainable. As a result, a large proportion of the humanitarian aid (foreign and domestic) will eventually be withdrawn, leaving the local networks, including the health system, to cope with what is left of the recovery and hopefully return to a relatively normal (non-emergency) level of functioning (this could be similar to the situation pre-disaster but ideally it will be better than before).<br />
<br />
Health systems encompasses any institutions, organisations, businesses, bodies, products, resources and/or professionals involved in providing health services. These include:<br />
<ul>
<li>Governing bodies and those leadership roles</li>
<li>People, actions and systems involved in service delivery</li>
<li>Health professionals and workforce (i.e. nurses, doctors, midwives)</li>
<li>Information systems</li>
<li>Medical products and their distributors</li>
<li>Vaccines</li>
<li>Technology</li>
<li>Finances and financial officers</li>
</ul>
<div>
(Dunham 2014; WHO 2008)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
So, what should the goals be of post-disaster health systems strengthening?</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
From what I can gather, they are many. However, the primary goal is to return the local health system to a normal functioning state, preferably one that is superior to that before the disaster. It is also imperative to smoothly transition from having a large humanitarian aid presence back to primarily (or only) local service providers. This requires that the gaps in services left by humanitarian agencies after they reduce their activity or leave the area all together be filled. There are a number of things to consider:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Firstly, what is the context of the situation?</li>
<ul>
<li>Disaster type, scale and stage</li>
<li>Are there complicating factors such as conflict? If the conflict is ongoing, this will have implications for the recovery process</li>
<li>Is there a high risk of a subsequent disaster in the near future?</li>
</ul>
<li>Have the specific exit timelines been formally discussed, established and outlined with the host nation and leaders of the local health systems well in advance so that they know exactly when to expect the foreign aid providers to leave?</li>
<ul>
<li>This will help all parties plan for what will need to happen when the aid will slow down and stop so that local services can prepare to fill any gaps and adjust accordingly</li>
</ul>
<li>Are there a sufficient number of locally-operated health institutions in good working condition to provide care?</li>
<ul>
<li>Damaged institutions have been sufficiently repaired</li>
<li>Extraneous health units have been gradually closed while populations were informed well in advance and provided with/directed to suitable, locally-run alternatives for their continuing needs</li>
</ul>
<li>What is the situation regarding health staff?</li>
<ul>
<li>Sufficient number of nurses, doctors and midwives for the population</li>
<li>The potential inclusion of individuals trained in short courses to respond to the disaster has been dealt with (whether or not to include them and if so in what capacity)</li>
<li>The potential for continued education and training of health staff has been explored and formal programs have been implemented wherever possible</li>
<li>Networks established between health professionals (for sharing information, providing support, etc) are able to continue.</li>
</ul>
<li>Are appropriate, effective and uniform health information systems operational?</li>
<ul>
<li>Temporary information systems put in place during the disaster have ceased or been incorporated into an official, trusted and established information system</li>
</ul>
<li>Are drugs being supplied through normal, legal and monitored drug channels?</li>
<ul>
<li>Informal/unofficial drug channels used throughout the disaster to fill gaps in access have now been closed</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(WHO 2008)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Each of the smaller objectives should ultimately contribute to the overall goal of improving the local health system's capacity to care for its own population and operate autonomously (WHO 2008). They should also contribute to the strengthening of the area's resilience, in other words, its ability to cope with, adjust and/or bounce back from future disasters (WHO 2008). Any opportunities that present themselves during the acute emergency response phase to help accomplish these recovery goals (referred to as "foundational activities") should be taken advantage of (WHO 2008). <br />
<br />
Unfortunately, funding during the transitional and recovery periods is difficult, especially without clearly defined plans. I can understand why funding is a problem after the initial relief phase. The desperation of an emergency, the desire to save people from death and severe injury triggers significantly more action than the rebuilding. I presume that most donors see funding recovery as an investment in efforts that do not have relatively rapid and/or clear outcomes. They may also see recovery as a process for which the host nation and local stakeholders should be responsible.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
References:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
WHO 2008, <i>Health cluster guidance on health recovery</i>, viewed 8 January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/global_health_cluster/guide/117_iasc_global_health_cluster_recovery_strategy_guidelines.pdf>.</div>
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Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-70258973724313350132015-01-15T13:37:00.000-08:002015-01-15T22:37:00.588-08:00Disaster Management: Emergency Situation StakeholdersWho are stakeholders in emergency situations?<br />
<br />
A stakeholder is any individual, organisation or group with a vested interest in the outcome of an emergency situation and the success of the designated response. These include:<br />
<ul>
<li>Government (local, state, national)</li>
<li>Citizens and other civilians (temporary residents, tourists, migrant workers and employees in the area)</li>
<li>Emergency services (fire fighters, police, paramedics, etc)</li>
<li>Medical personnel</li>
<li>Health experts and logisticians</li>
<li>Community and special interest groups</li>
<li>Business owners and operators</li>
<li>Home owners</li>
<li>Community leaders</li>
<li>Service and resource providers (food suppliers, etc)</li>
<li>Utility providers (water, electricity, etc)</li>
<li>Waste removal companies and professionals</li>
<li>School staff</li>
<li>Managers of facilities and infrastructure</li>
<li>Organisations (local and international, non-governmental, not-for-profit, etc)</li>
<li>Military factions</li>
<li>Media (radio, television, news and social media outlets)</li>
<li>Communication companies (internet and phone providers)</li>
</ul>
<div>
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</div>
(Emergency Management Australia 2004; Woombalah festival n.d.)<br />
<br />
I decided to consider the current Ebola crisis in West Africa to examine the interests of certain stakeholders as well as the information that would be of interest to them at various stages in the emergency and how communication should take place.<br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-I_NQ0nGKehc/VLhN5pOmOSI/AAAAAAAAAmQ/kI-YQFR-LdY/s1600/stakeholder%2Btable.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-I_NQ0nGKehc/VLhN5pOmOSI/AAAAAAAAAmQ/kI-YQFR-LdY/s1600/stakeholder%2Btable.png" height="2560" width="1104" /></a></div>
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While cases have been reported in various countries around the world, transmission has been relatively contained in the West African region. Developed countries have been able to respond quickly to their potential cases and enact quarantine procedures, thereby limiting the potential spread of the disease within their borders. Unfortunately, the political, social, economic, natural and overall health situations in West Africa have severely compromised the ability of stakeholders to invest in and mobilise resources for emergency prevention, preparation, response and recovery. With struggling economies, crippled health infrastructure, poor levels of public education and a lack of political will and accountability, the spread of Ebola in the most affected countries (Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea) has become nearly (or perhaps entirely) impossible to control. The large number of isolated communities, lack of accurate population data and gaps in information and surveillance systems has also complicated disaster prevention and management. Accurate and timely information between stakeholders is difficult, especially when the general public is the target audience. Official warning systems and awareness campaigns transmitting important key messages must compete with cultural norms, traditions and beliefs as well as the spread of incorrect information through informal channels (the rumour mill). The spread of Ebola in West Africa is truly contributing to a vicious cycle in which the prevalence of disease is further damaging economies that were already fragile (which is why they were vulnerable to the epidemic to begin with). This damage makes it even more difficult for the countries themselves to respond to that and other disasters and ultimately recover.<br />
<br /></div>
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</div>
<div>
References:<br />
<br />
Emergency Management Australia 2004, <i>Emergency Risk Management Application Guide, Manual 5</i>, Commonwealth of Australia, viewed 14 January 2015, <https://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Manual%2005-ApplicationsGuide.pdf>.<br />
<br />
Woombalah festival n.d., <i>Emergency risk management stakeholders</i>, viewed 14 January 2015, <https://nationalvetcontent.edu.au/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/7aacc5fe-bb7c-4635-9c2c-2c3f0d72c179/904/toolbox904/resource_centre/r3_contr_emerg/r303_erm_stakeho/r303_erm_stakeho.htm>.</div>
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<div>
Eryn</div>
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travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-3191845083033429022015-01-13T14:58:00.001-08:002015-01-14T14:57:39.746-08:00Disaster Management: The Health and Safety of Aid WorkersEvery job, paid or not, in every city in every country in the world, involves a certain level of risk (Henry 2004; CDC 2013). Unfortunately for aid workers, the level of risk involved in providing assistance to populations affected by disaster is fairly high, particularly in conflict scenarios. The many potential dangers to which aid workers might be exposed include:<br />
<div>
<ul>
<li>Illness or disease (contracting a communicable disease, food poisoning, or complications that arise from pre-existing or developing chronic conditions).</li>
<li>Injury or trauma (accidental or intentional as the result of a transportation accident).</li>
<ul>
<li>May result in infection or gangrene if an injury or laceration that goes unnoticed and/or untreated.</li>
</ul>
<li>Emotional or psychological distress (as a result of witnessing or being the victim of trauma, an attack, a kidnapping or a disaster).</li>
<ul>
<li>May have secondary consequences and/or physical manifestations such as burnout or addictions.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
(CDC 2013; Henry 2004)</div>
<div>
<br />
<div>
Aid workers are also at risk of misrepresenting the organisation that they are working under, which could compromise the public's trust in that group or even aid workers in general and therefore negatively impact future initiatives in the area (Henry 2004; The Sphere Project n.d.).</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The majority of the countries that require assistance are developing nations and many of these have high rates of infectious disease. The rates of transmission could potentially increase as a result of the disaster or even as a result of a surge in aid workers in the area. For example, in the aftermath of the earthquake in Haiti, an aid worker providing assistance unknowingly infected the water with cholera bacteria resulting in an outbreak of the disease that had previously not been present in the island nation. Because of the earthquake damage and the lack of infrastructure, many were consuming water from stagnate surface or compromised ground supplies which became contaminated when the infected individuals defecated in open areas or poorly constructed latrines. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Foreign aid workers are particularly vulnerable to infectious diseases because they have not acquired the same level of immunity as the local population and may not be entirely familiar with the illnesses or methods of transmission in the area. They may also become nonchalant about prevention measures over time, for example, skipping their malaria prophylaxis because it makes them feel nauseated or not checking the inside of their bed nets for mosquitoes before going to sleep because they are too tired. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Transportation has become essential in our world and lives as human beings. Aid workers rely on transportation to move them to the areas and facilities in which they will be working, but unfortunately while it is necessary, it is also inherently dangerous. In fact, a research study by King in 2001 determined that of 249 humanitarian aid workers killed over a four-year period starting in 1997, 28% died as a result of traffic accidents (Henry 2004). Road traffic injuries are a major cause of death and disability in many developing countries, due in large part to poor transportation infrastructure (i.e. roads that are properly maintained, etc) in addition to the lack of road safety laws and the enforcement of those laws. In many cases, aid workers end up using local methods of transport such as motorcycles because they are easier to access and cheaper than taxis or buses, even though they are more dangerous. They may ride without proper protection (i.e. not wearing helmets or long pants to protect their legs, etc) and fit several people onto the back of a motorbike to save time and money.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
With the recent terror attack on Paris still in the headlines, the fact that conflicts are still raging around the world is never far from people's thoughts (well, not mine anyway). At this exact moment, the U.S. Center for Preventive Action’s Global Conflict Tracker has identified 34 situations of dangerous political instability, conflict, widespread violence and/or incidences of ongoing terrorist attacks around the world (Council of Foreign Relations 2015). While the very concept of armed conflict and widespread violence clearly denotes a high level of danger, aid workers are still sent into those situations to mitigate the impacts of that and other disasters that may occur in the area simultaneously. Unfortunately, aid workers are increasingly becoming the victims of violence, rape, kidnapping, torture and murder in conflict zones (Henry 2004). Some groups have decided to take aid workers hostage to make money by ransoming their families or the organisations that they work for, while other groups have decided to make a public display of their murders to further their own agendas.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Despite the level of danger, many aid organisations have policies prohibiting the carrying and use of weapons to protect their workers. The carrying and use of weapons could damage the organisation's reputation as a humanitarian agency that is there to help and not there to fight. As a result, they could be mistaken for insurgents or viewed as providing tactical support to one side of the conflict and attacked on those grounds. The weapons could also be stolen and used by insurgents, in which case the resulting casualties could be considered the fault of the organisation who brought the weapons into the area. On the other hand, not having a method to protect the workers means that they must rely on the public's appreciation of their efforts and the relationship that they have built with the conflicting sides.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Finally, aid workers in disaster settings are working in highly stressful environments where their actions have serious consequences, where they work very long hours and in very rough conditions (CDC 2013; Dunham 2014; Henry 2004). They are also witnesses to (and sometimes even victims of) very distressing circumstances such as large loss of life and limb, kidnappings, rapes, murders, assaults and widespread devastation (Dunham 2014; Henry 2004). The physical and psychological stresses can lead to burnout and even drive some individuals to use drugs and alcohol to try and cope, which can result in addiction (Dunham 2014; Henry 2004). Other risk factors of burnout include unrealistic expectations, lack of support and the feeling of having no control over the situation (Dunham 2014). The long-term emotional and psychological impacts of being an aid worker can be extensive and very destructive if not dealt with appropriately.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
There are several steps that organisations providing and supporting aid operations can take to protect their workers and minimise the risks to their health, well-being and security. The first set of steps involves appropriate recruitment.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>1. Recruitment</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Recruiting the appropriate people with the right experience for the work involved is absolutely essential to providing optimum care to the populations being served in addition to building and preserving the organisation's reputation. Ensuring that the workers have the right credentials, education and aptitudes for the tasks they will be undertaking can also help to avert psychological trauma that may result from them being unprepared and therefore unsuccessful. This is especially true in cases when being unsuccessful could result in loss of life or other devastating consequences.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Things to consider include the applicant's:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Age - younger people take more risks, especially men but older people might become more complacent (Henry 2004).</li>
<li>Gender - there should be a balance between men and women (Henry 2004).</li>
<li>Experience - whenever possible, it is very beneficial to recruit people who have experience working with the organisation or ones like it (Henry 2004).</li>
<li>Nationality, heritage and/or place of residence - recruiting locals can be very helpful because they are familiar with the area, language(s) and customs and are more likely to stay and carry on activities (Henry 2004). Having individuals who are more permanent fixtures can help maintain continuity throughout the programs. While organisations have been previously criticised for the lack of opportunities and promotions afforded to local staff, some of the more proactive agencies have actively begun to improve on this front (Henry 2004). However, in conflict situations, they may also be affiliated or seen to be associated with a particular side, which could put them, their coworkers and the effectiveness of the organisation's efforts in danger (Henry 2004).</li>
<li>Health status - applicants should be found to be in relatively good health before deployment, otherwise the efficiency of their work could be compromised and instead of providing assistance, they may be more likely to require assistance (Henry 2004).</li>
<li>Other personal factors that could be unveiled in the recruitment/interview process (i.e. criminal history, personal ethics, etc). </li>
</ul>
<div>
Recruitment should also include a thorough explanation of what will be expected of the candidates should they be accepted so that they can make an informed decision about whether or not they want to continue with the process. </div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>2. Induction and Training</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Before being sent anywhere, it is of the upmost importance that workers receive the appropriate training, whether they are part of the initial wave of responders or taking over for individuals who are leaving. The training for aid work should be thorough and should include the organisation's aims, policies and methods of operations in addition to teaching new employees or volunteers any additional skills they will be expected to perform as part of their role with the agency.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>3. Briefing</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
In addition to training, briefing workers on specific situations that require consideration or changes to protocol prior to deployment and/or throughout their assignment is also important. This may include briefing them on recent security breaches, a developing conflict in the area, cultural contexts of which they must be aware, etc. Briefing is a crucial part of preparing staff for aid work.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>4. Reasonable Working Conditions</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
While the work will come with risks that cannot be completely avoided, it is important that the work standards be as good as possible to minimise the frequency and severity of complications. Organisations should always be looking for ways to actively protect their workers. This may involve re-locating them to safer environments, providing security staff (if it is not against the agency's code of conduct and agreement with the host government), setting strict curfews, educating workers on the appropriate evacuation procedures, etc (Sphere, n.d.). </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Despite the overwhelming demand and probable shortage of professionals, it is vital that organisations provide their workers with adequate down time, even while on duty, instead of pushing them to the point where they are overworked and susceptible to burn out (Henry 2004; Sphere n.d.). Not taking care to provide employees and volunteers with good working conditions can compromise the quality of their work and lead to stress, depression and erratic behaviour (Henry 2004). As a result, it may also result in them exiting the program early or being reluctant to return and work for the agency, which could make it even more difficult to staff initiatives down the track (Henry 2004).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
There should also be systems in place for workers to submit complaints, concerns or ideas for improving procedures (Henry 2004). Workers should also have access to training that can further their personal development and skill-set (Henry 2004).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>5. Debriefing</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
After an incident or the completion of an assignment, workers (both local and international) should go through a debriefing process (Henry 2004). This process involves examining what went on over the course of the staff member's assignment and/or the incident they witnessed if one occurred and their feelings about the experience (Henry 2004). The debriefing offers an opportunity to inform human resources and management of any issues that need to be dealt in order to improve the success of the agency's efforts, their overall procedures as well as the experiences and safety of their employees in the future (Henry 2004). It also gives human resources a chance to identify staff members who are in need of counselling or other additional services (Henry 2004).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
There are four typical kinds of debriefs:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Operational debriefing - operation or work specific.</li>
<li>Personal debriefing - focuses more on the individual.</li>
<li>Critical incident debriefing (CID) - very structured personal debrief after traumatic ordeal.</li>
<li>Exit interview - operational and personal debrief at the end of a professional contract.</li>
</ul>
<div>
(Henry 2004)</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>6. Counselling</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Counselling services should always be provided to aid workers to help them deal with traumatic events, the stresses associated with their work or distressing situations that they have witnessed (Henry 2004). This will help them to work through their feelings of sadness, anger, fear, anxiety and/or guilt and move on (Henry 2004). It is the best way to help avoid burn out and post-traumatic stress disorder so that they can return to their normal lives in a healthy mental state and continue to be productive individuals (Henry 2004). </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>7. Rest and Relaxation</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
It is critical that staff have a break away from working in the field to rest and recuperate so that they can return refreshed (Henry 2004). This includes adequate rest periods both during and between field assignments (Henry 2004). Failing to do so can contribute to burn out among staff and poor productivity.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>8. Enforcement of Organisation's Code of Conduct and Policies</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Failing to follow the organisation's code of conduct can compromise the safety of the worker themselves, their colleagues as well as the health and well-being of the populations they are there to assist. It can also reflect very poorly on the agency and interfere with their efforts, it may even lead the host nation recalling that organisation's permission to remain and work in the area. Therefore, there should be clear and specific consequences for workers who fail to uphold the organisation's code of conduct and/or break national or international laws. The organisation should explain the various rules and consequences to workers prior to their deployment and should enforce their policies consistently and fairly.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
References:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
CDC 2013, <i>Traveler's Health: Humanitarian Aid Workers</i>, viewed 10 January 2015, <http://www.peopleinaid.org/resources/enhancingqualityinhr>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Council on Foreign Relations 2015, <i>Global Conflict Tracker</i>, viewed 10 January 2015, <http://www.cfr.org/global/global-conflict-tracker/p32137#!/?marker=17>.</div>
<div>
<br />
Dunham J 2014, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br /></div>
<div>
Henry J 2004, <i>Enhancing Quality in HR management in the humanitarian sector</i>, People in Aid, viewed 10 January 2015, <http://www.peopleinaid.org/resources/enhancingqualityinhr>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The Sphere Project n.d., <i>Core Standard 6: Aid worker performance</i>, viewed 10 January 2015, <http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/core-standard-6-aid-worker-performance/>.<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-39568528594117662892015-01-12T21:22:00.000-08:002015-01-17T16:58:15.454-08:00Disaster Management: MSF Rapid Assessment for Displaced and Refugee PopulationsAs a youngster, I had always wanted to work for Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). I thought that I had to be a doctor to do so, but this course has helped me to realise that the organisation requires a plethora of trained professionals with different specialties including nurses, midwives, epidemiologists, logisticians, etc. I also assumed that they only provided assistance in low-income countries where natural disasters had hit or the populations simply did not have enough access to medical services. I had never expected that they would be actively sending doctors to highly volatile conflict zones, but I now know that it is something that they pride themselves on.<br />
<br />
Because MSF operates in so many emergency situations around the world, the organisation has put together a much-needed rapid assessment guide for displaced and refugee populations. The guide outlines the appropriate priorities and procedures for assessing and addressing the health and well-being of displaced persons in an emergency situation.<br />
<br />
MSF states that in an acute emergency response scenario, the goal is to minimise excess deaths and stabilise the condition of the population's health (addressing any urgent health problems such as severe trauma or blood loss, potential or emerging epidemics, etc) (Depoortere & Brown 2006). Large displaced populations often have high rates of mortality, especially in the under 5 age group (Depoortere & Brown 2006). The leading causes of death in these groups are measles, diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections, malaria and/or malnutrition (Depoortere & Brown 2006). The guide identifies the organisation's "top priorities", which form the basis of the assessment and the interventions designed to accomplish the emergency response goals (Depoortere & Brown 2006). These include:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Rapid assessment of population's state of health</li>
<li>Mass measles vaccination</li>
<li>Ensure clean water supply and implement sanitary measures</li>
<li>Food supply and implement nutritional supplementation and/or rehabilitation programs</li>
<li>Ensuring shelter, site planning and the provisions of non-food items</li>
<li>Curative care founded on standardised therapeutic protocols using necessary drugs</li>
<li>Prevention and control of communicable diseases and potential outbreaks and epidemics</li>
<li>Surveillance and warnings</li>
<li>Evaluation of human resources, training and management of community health workers</li>
<li>Coordination of various contributing functional partners </li>
<li>The security of the populations</li>
</ul>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Health assessments are included in the initial wave of operational activities along with providing water supply and mass measles vaccinations. They are utilised to determine the scale of the emergency and needs of the population (Depoortere & Brown 2006).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
These assessments are followed by more investigative evaluations (context and history of the crisis, etc).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
It is important to obtain/establish:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Demographic data</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>How large is the population affected - the size of the displaced population is a good indicator of the scale of the emergency</li>
<li>How many women compared to men</li>
<li>The number of children, especially under the age of 5</li>
<li>Number of pregnant and lactating women</li>
<li>Number of elderly people</li>
<li>Average household size (number of people per family)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Mortality and Morbidity</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Mortality is the best indicator of the scale of the impact on the population's health and comparing initial rates follow-up figures show how the situation is progressing</li>
<li>Health programs will be set up and geared towards the diseases occurring most frequently</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Nutritional Status</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>The prevalence of acute severe and global malnutrition can be measured via a cross-sectional survey, which in conjunction with expected harvest, local coping methods and mortality information can help to determine the nutritional state and needs of the population</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Vital Needs</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Assess the current food and water access as well as the hygiene and sanitation situations for the population and determine the gaps to identify the needs</li>
</ul>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Shelter and Non-Food Items</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>To assess how much of the population has access to a habitat that will sufficiently protect them from the elements.</li>
<li>To assess the access to and need for non-food items including wood, fuel, blankets, cooking implements, etc</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Security</b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Assess the risks of violent events including robberies, murders, rapes and assaults, which in addition to informing security interventions and procedures, could also provide insight for the mental and sexual health needs of the population. </li>
<li>The security situation could also have implications for food, water and medical supply access, etc.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
(Depoortere & Brown 2006)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
While it was not specifically included in this list, I also believe that specifically assessing <b>mental</b>, <b>sexual </b>and <b>reproductive health</b> needs should also be assessed. There should also be a great deal of care given to identify and protect to transgender, homosexual and bisexual populations that may be or become the victims of discrimination.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
References:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Depoortere, E & Brown, V 2006, <i>Rapid health assessment of refugee or displaced populations</i>, 3rd edn, Médecins Sans Frontières, viewed 8 January 2015, <http://refbooks.msf.org/msf_docs/en/rapid_health/rapid_health_en.pdf>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-18290640998053573612015-01-12T08:49:00.000-08:002015-01-12T08:49:04.085-08:00Disaster Management: Who Takes the Lead in Canada?Identifying the organisation responsible for coordinating the response in the case of a disaster is not necessarily an easy task as it depends both on the the location (i.e. country, region, etc), scale (i.e. statewide, regional, national, local, etc) and type of emergency. As a Canadian, I was interested to find out which organisation would take the lead in the event of a national emergency in my home country. As embarrassed as I am to say that I had never looked into Canada's national emergency response system, the fact that I am unfamiliar with the body in charge highlights how few disasters our country has had and therefore how fortunate we have been.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it would be good to know who takes the reigns, especially in case I ever work in disaster management in Canada.<br />
<br />
The Health Canada website explains that in the case of most emergencies, Public Safety Canada (a federal government body) will organise the response in the health sector at the federal level and provide funding if and when necessary to the affected provinces and/or territories (Health Canada 2012).<br />
<br />
However, Health Canada becomes the lead organisation in the event of a nuclear or radiological emergency. In such an event, Health Canada is responsible for enacting the response according to the Federal Nuclear Emergency Plan (FNEP) as well as coordinating with the American authorities through the Canada-US Joint Radiological Response Plan should the emergency affect or require contributions from both countries (Health Canada 2011; Health Canada 2012). The agency is also responsible for working with Canadian Food Inspection Agency and the Public Health Agency of Canada to implement the Foodborne Illness Outbreak Response Protocol in the event of a contaminated food outbreak (Health Canada 2011; Health Canada 2012). They are charged with providing emergency health care to Canada's First Nations and Inuit communities as well as aiding managers provide help to employees who have experienced a traumatic event in the workplace through the Psycho-social Emergency Preparedness and Response programme (Health Canada 2011; Health Canada 2012). They provide grants to the blood service agencies to help decrease collection and testing time and thus increase inventory (Health Canada 2012). Finally, they help to minimise the health and economic impacts of disasters and extreme events through the the Applied Research & Analysis Directorate and in the event of a chemical emergency, they offer support and expert knowledge through the Chemical Emergency Response Unit (CERU) (Health Canada 2012).<br />
<br />
The health response for all other health-related emergencies is led and overseen by the Public Health Agency of Canada (Health Canada 2012). The response is carried out through the activation of the health portfolio's Emergency Operations Centre and coordination with the Department of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness (Health Canada 2012). <br />
<br />
Ultimately, all of the organisations that are responsible for taking the lead in the event of an emergency in Canada are government bodies. They also have various plans and channels through which they coordinate their responses with other bodies and organisations. All of those working relationships have already been established and many of the bodies are interconnected in various ways (especially all of the government bodies). This makes sense as Canada is a developed country with a trusted and stable government, plenty of local resources and a well-organised system. It is not expected in Canada that there would be a disaster scenario that the government could not or would not mobilise the resources for and mount an appropriate response to.<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Health Canada 2011, <i>Emergency Response</i>, viewed 8 January 2015, http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/ed-ud/respond/index-eng.php<br />
<br />
Health Canada 2012, <i>Emergencies and Disasters</i>, viewed 8 January 2015, <http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/ed-ud/index-eng.php>.<br />
<br />
Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-6448873660009757232015-01-10T10:50:00.000-08:002015-01-11T18:28:05.115-08:00Disaster Management: The UNISDR and Building Resilient CitiesThe older I get, the more I understand the sayings "it's better to be safe than sorry" and "you have to pull yourself up by your bootstraps". In my opinion, these two sayings combined, in essence, represent the concept of resilience. The idea of preparing for the worst should it occur and relying on yourself and your capabilities instead of being dependent on others to get you through the challenges that present themselves really resonates with me. By and large, no one cares for or knows more about a community and the needs of its members like the people who live there. Residents are also the first people on the scene in the event of an emergency because they are physically the closest and it is unlikely that all of them will be completely incapacitated. As a result, they are generally the best people to deal with any issues, especially when the community is vulnerable. It's also essential the communities remain as autonomous as possible so that they can rebuild because it is unlikely that external funding would continue long enough to last through the entire recovery period. It also enables communities to rebuild in the way that they want to, after all, they are the ones who will be living there, the fate of their city, town or village is tied to their future while the people offering external assistance will eventually leave. <br />
<br />
One of our lecture slides from the Health Aspects of Disaster course included a diagram that supported the principles of building resiliency by illustrating the benefits of anticipatory actions compared to post-onset response procedures.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
Components of Reducing Vulnerability:</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Prevention</li>
<li>Mitigation</li>
<li>Preparedness</li>
</ul>
<div>
Benefits:</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Most cost-effective</li>
<li>Pre-impact (when it is likely easier to manoeuvre and implement preparations)</li>
<li>Community-based (grassroots)</li>
<li>More sustainable</li>
</ul>
<div>
Components of Crisis-Management:</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Response</li>
<li>Recovery</li>
</ul>
<div>
Drawbacks:</div>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
</div>
<ul>
<li>Delivered post-impact (when it is likely more difficult to manoeuvre, distribute resources and information and initiate action)</li>
<li>Least cost-effective</li>
<li>Nationally and internationally-based</li>
<li>Unsustainable</li>
</ul>
<div>
(Dunham 2014a)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The <b>United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)</b> is the branch of the United Nations Secretariat responsible for ensuring and facilitating the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR n.d). The office supports and coordinates disaster risk reduction activities within and between countries, regions, cities and other organisations (other UN bodies and financial, academic, research, media and other private institutions, etc) (UNISDR n.d). Their aim is to help communities improve their ability to resist and bounce back from disasters by providing information, resources and assistance to prevent and mitigate disasters as opposed to responding to them after the fact (UNISDR n.d). In the description of "What We Do", they specifically list:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Campaign</li>
<li>Coordinate</li>
<li>Inform</li>
<li>Advocate</li>
</ul>
<div>
(UNISDR n.d)</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
And all that entails in regards to disaster risk reduction and the promotion of prevention and local resilience (UNISDR n.d). The spectrum of their activities includes increasing public education as well as awareness, participation and commitment amongst communities and organisations, supporting research and facilitating partnerships among others (UNISDR n.d).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The UNISDR also states that there are no natural disasters, there are only natural hazards and man-made disasters (UNISDR n.d). In other words, disasters only become so as a result of human activity and/or inactivity.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<i>Making Cities Resilient</i> is one of the campaigns that the UNISDR has going and it is the one that I found the most interesting. The campaign is aimed at getting local governments involved in building the resiliencies of their own communities (UNISDR 2012b). Local governments are provided with checklists, toolkits, other resources and overall support to help them implement changes that will improve their resiliency in the event of a hazard (UNISDR 2012b).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The following is the 10 point checklist that is included as part of the UNISDR's toolkit for making cities resilient:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
"Checklist Summary</div>
<div>
<ol>
<li>Put in place organisation and coordination to understand and reduce disaster risk, based on participation of citizen groups and civil society. Build local alliances. Ensure that all departments understand their role in disaster risk reduction and preparedness. </li>
<li>Assign a budget for disaster risk reduction and provide incentives for homeowners, low‐income families, communities, businesses and the public sector to invest in reducing the risks they face. </li>
<li>Maintain up‐to‐date data on hazards and vulnerabilities, prepare risk assessments and use these as the basis for urban development plans and decisions. Ensure that this information and the plans for your city’s resilience are readily available to the public and fully discussed with them. </li>
<li>Invest in and maintain critical infrastructure that reduces risk, such as flood drainage, adjusted where needed to cope with climate change. </li>
<li>Assess the safety of all schools and health facilities and upgrade these as necessary. </li>
<li>Apply and enforce realistic, risk‐compliant building regulations and land use planning principles. Identify safe land for low‐income citizens and upgrade informal settlements, wherever feasible. </li>
<li>Ensure that education programmes and training on disaster risk reduction are in place in schools and local communities. </li>
<li>Protect ecosystems and natural buffers to mitigate floods, storm surges and other hazards to which your city may be vulnerable. Adapt to climate change by building on good risk reduction practices. </li>
<li>Install early warning systems and emergency management capacities in your city and hold regular public preparedness drills. </li>
<li>After any disaster, ensure that the needs of the affected population are placed at the centre of reconstruction, with support for them and their community organisations to design and help implement responses, including rebuilding homes and livelihoods."</li>
</ol>
<div>
(UNISDR 2012a)</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<div>
I once heard a <i>Freakonomics</i> podcast about how mayors are by and large, some the most effective government figures in the world (Lechtenberg 2014). In the podcast, they discussed how mayors are remarkably successful at actually getting things done on the ground (probably because they don't have to deal with as much bureaucracy as state and federal officials who need to pass legislation through barrier after barrier before coming even close to implementation) (Lechtenberg 2014).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Taking into consideration the high efficiency of mayors and the benefits of increasing local capacity, it is obvious that building resilient communities (cities, towns and villages) is a sensible way to help prevent and/or mitigate the impacts of potential disasters. </div>
</div>
<div>
<br />
I was also pleased to see that the focus is not only on building the resilience of structures and institutions, but also of the people themselves. The course study guide went discussed the importance of re-establishing cultural identity and looking after mental health and social well-being in addition to physical health. As an immigrant to Australia, I have often found it difficult to feel happy and productive, especially when I miss practicing the social norms and cultural customs of my home country. The lack of strong social ties can also lead to profound sadness and loneliness, particularly for someone like me who thrives emotionally when they interact with others. There have been several occasions when I have gathered with other Canadians (there is a Brisbane group that meets on a regular basis for hockey games and celebrations like Canada Day and Thanksgiving) and despite the fact that I do not know any of them, I find the sense of community to be very comforting. We can share stories and talk about our sports teams and there is a feeling of familiarity and belonging. Everyone should have that, it helps you relax, laugh, let go of your stress and feel happy, even if it's only for a couple of hours every once in a while. In my experience, social gatherings also build a sense of community, which makes people more likely to band together and help one another in times of need, thereby forming a stronger, more cohesive and resilient society. Contributing to society can also help build the self-esteem of individuals by making them feel needed and valued. Without the will of individuals, it is difficult to accomplish anything or make any progress.<br />
<br /></div>
<div>
References:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Dunham J 2014a, <i>Disaster Management</i>, Lecture slides, Health Aspects of Disaster, University of Queensland, Brisbane.</div>
<div>
<br />
Dunham J 2014b, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br /></div>
<div>
Lechtenberg S 2014, <i>“If Mayors Ruled the World”: A New Freakonomics Radio Podcast</i>, Podcast, Freakonomics, viewed 7 January 2015, <http://freakonomics.com/2014/04/10/if-mayors-ruled-the-world-a-new-freakonomics-radio-podcast/>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
UNISDR 2012a, <i>Making Cities Resilient: My City is Getting Ready</i>, viewed 7 January 2015, <http://www.unisdr.org/campaign/resilientcities/about>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
UNISDR 2012b, <i>The 10 Essentials for Making Cities Resilient</i>, viewed 7 January 2015, <http://www.unisdr.org/campaign/resilientcities/toolkit/essentials>.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
UNISDR n.d., <i>What is the International Strategy</i>, viewed 7 January 2015, <http://www.unisdr.org/who-we-are/international-strategy-for-disaster-reduction>.<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-9565125457149171462015-01-09T14:35:00.000-08:002015-06-24T00:48:45.673-07:00Disaster Management: the Principles and Legal Frameworks Involved<div>
Why is disaster management so important? Why do international organisations, authorities, military units and volunteer associations respond in the case of a disaster?</div>
<div>
<br />
I have talked a little bit about humanitarianism in other posts but I feel that it is important to include the rights described by the <b>Humanitarian Charter</b> in the <b>Sphere Handbook </b>as these outline the basic principles for which assistance from humanitarian agencies is provided. The Charter explains that these rights are not stated exactly as such in international law, but they do serve to summarise the legal rights established in various international codes and regulations. The basic principles are:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><b>The right to life with dignity</b></li>
<li><b>The right to receive humanitarian assistance </b></li>
<li><b>The right to protection and security </b></li>
</ul>
<div>
(The Sphere Project n.d.)<br />
<br />
I had never really considered how many different sets of laws, rules and regulations that apply when providing humanitarian assistance. The list includes:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>The domestic laws of the country from which you come and your organisation has employed you</li>
<li>The domestic laws of the host country (local, state or provincial and national)</li>
<li>Status of forces agreements (agreements between host governments and military forces)</li>
<li>International criminal law</li>
<li>International disaster response law</li>
<li>Refugee law</li>
<li>Human rights law</li>
<li>Law of peacekeeping operations</li>
<li>International humanitarian law</li>
<li>International law and the law of the force</li>
<li>The code of conduct and policies of the organisation you are working for</li>
<li>Any rules and regulations stipulated by the host country upon requesting assistance and/or granting entry and the rights of operation that were agreed to by your organisation</li>
<li>The code of ethics and conduct outlined by the professional licensing body under which you practice and are registered as a member (i.e. Ontario College of Nurses, Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia, Australian Health Practitioner Agency (AHPRA), etc)</li>
<li>The code of conduct and policies of the local institution(s) in which you end up working (i.e. domestic hospitals, etc)</li>
</ul>
<div>
(Dunham 2014)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Acting in defiance of any one of these laws or policies could have a range of consequences for yourself, your profession and your organisation.<br />
<br />
What are the fundamental principles and characteristics of International Humanitarian Law (IHL), International Human Rights Law and Refugee Law? How are these different?<br />
<br />
International Humanitarian Law<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Only applies in cases of armed conflict</li>
<ul>
<li>default to ordinary international laws in times of peace</li>
</ul>
<li>Protects those who are not or are no longer actively participating in the hostilities including:</li>
<ul>
<li> civilians</li>
<li>former soldiers who have put down their arms and/or can no longer fight</li>
<li>individuals and groups providing humanitarian assistance (i.e. those working with the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movements have added protection and trust under those emblems as they denote neutrality)</li>
</ul>
<li>Aims to prevent additional unnecessary suffering</li>
<li>Sets limits on the activities of warfare (for governmental and non-governmental groups, i.e. rebel forces)</li>
<li>No derogable rights (rights that can be limited or suspended during an emergency and/or conflict)</li>
</ul>
<br />
(Dunham 2014)<br />
<br />
International Human Rights Law<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Apply during peace time and conflict</li>
<li>Include the basic human rights and freedoms every individual is entitled to</li>
<ul>
<li>right to life</li>
<li>adequate standard of living</li>
<li>right to assembly</li>
<li>freedom of the press, etc</li>
</ul>
<li>Some rights are derogable during an emergency and/or conflict</li>
</ul>
<div>
(Dunham 2014)</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Refugee Law</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Outlines the rights and standards of treatment of refugees</li>
<ul>
<li>the right to seek asylum, the right to shelter, identification documents, family unity, etc</li>
</ul>
<li>Includes non-refoulement (cannot be forced to return to the country from which they seek asylum once given refugee status), which is also protected under International Human Rights Law and International Law</li>
<li>Does not apply to internally displaced persons as they have not left international borders</li>
</ul>
</div>
<br />
<br />
In class we did an activity that I found quite interesting and would like to include here called "Which type of law?". It involved identifying which kind of law would apply in various scenarios. I will be answering in the form of a question (like a good Canadian who grew up watching Jeopardy).<br />
<br />
1. An Egyptian Coptic Christian has suffered dreadfully during the country's recent turmoil. is wife had been killed during a firebombing of her church. In fear of his life he escapes, somehow making it across the Mediterranean, until he finds himself seeking entry and sanctuary in France. Which type of law applies?<br />
<br />
My answer: What is Refugee Law?<br />
<br />
The correct answer: Refugee Law so long as he can show a well-founded fear of persecution<br />
<br />
2. Child soldiers recruited into active service in an army must be above the minimum age of fifteen. Which type of law applies?<br />
<br />
My answer: What is International Human Rights Law?<br />
<br />
The correct answer: International Humanitarian Law, for countries that have not signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child, but International Human Rights Law applies for countries that have signed the Convention and prohibits them from recruiting soldiers between the ages of 15 and 18 years of age.<br />
<br />
3. African Union soldiers working under UN command in Sudan are alleged to engage no only in corruption, but in the brutal rape of already terrified war victims. Which type of law applies?<br />
<br />
My answer: What is International Humanitarian Law? International Human Rights Laws may apply as well perhaps?<br />
<br />
The correct answer: Domestic laws could apply as well as International Humanitarian Law<br />
<br />
4. Australia has adopted legal processes and policies to check that those seeking to enter the country are not indicted or apparently involved in war crimes elsewhere. Which type of law applies?<br />
<br />
My answer: What is Refugee Law?<br />
<br />
The correct answer: Under International Human Rights Law, individuals have the right to seek asylum, but under Refugee Law, they can be denied refugee status by a country if they have been involved in war crimes.<br />
<br />
5. A mosque near the Black Sea is hundreds of years old and decorated with magnificent pearl tiling. The law protects this building and the freedom to worship there. Which type of law applies?<br />
<br />
My answer: What is International Human Rights Law?<br />
<br />
The correct answer: International Humanitarian Law. While International Human Rights Law protects the right of an individual to worship, it is International Humanitarian Law that protects the building from being intentionally damaged. I found this one to be a bit of a tricky one, but I understand now.<br />
<br />
I do not think that my answers were too far off in the end.<br />
<br />
Having been an international volunteer with two different agencies, I was aware that I had to abide by the domestic rules of the country I was working in as well as the code of conduct of my agency, but I had never given much thought to the other laws. I suppose I always figured that I was not an international criminal and was there in good faith so as long as I behaved the way that I usually do (being respectful, not stealing anything or assaulting anyone, etc) I should be fine. Now of course I realise that could lead to serious mistakes for a humanitarian worker. A particular action or activity could be legal domestically but go against international law (for example, the stoning of homosexuals, thieves or women accused of being unfaithful). While I'm sure most volunteers would not join in with that kind of activity, they might be at risk of doing so if their mental state is compromised or if they have become desensitised to that kind of behaviour after a long period of service. Local volunteers could also be more at risk of engaging in those sorts of activities simply because it is the norm where they are from.</div>
</div>
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
</div>
<div>
References:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Dunham J 2014, <i>The International Legal Framework for Humanitarian Action</i>, Lecture slides, Health Aspects of Disaster, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br />
The Sphere Project 2011, <i>Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, 3rd edn, The Sphere Project, Geneva.<br />
<br />
The Sphere Project, n.d., <i>The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, viewed 17 December 2014, <http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/the-humanitarian-charter/>.<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-62945645220962497212015-01-08T04:48:00.000-08:002015-01-17T16:28:21.729-08:00Disaster Management: The Cluster System ApproachWhat is the cluster system approach?<br />
<br />
That is exactly what I typed into the search engine on my computer. After a full week of face-to-face lectures and (what I felt were) plenty of readings, I still could not put together a concrete answer to that question on my own. I found the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian affairs (OCHA) diagrams that were provided to us in our resource list to be very well put together and while they did provide me with a sense of what the cluster system is about, I was left wanting a more thorough explanation. So, naturally I turned to my favourite search engine: Google.<br />
<br />
As was to be expected, my Internet search brought up the two OCHA diagrams that I referred to earlier and have included below. However, it also brought me to the Humanitarian Response website (provided by OCHA), which had a plethora of information to help answer my question. <br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
Cluster Approach</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fOxEmlDSbPM/VLpSOhndC9I/AAAAAAAAAm4/DmK4nPoKgwc/s1600/clusterapproach.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fOxEmlDSbPM/VLpSOhndC9I/AAAAAAAAAm4/DmK4nPoKgwc/s1600/clusterapproach.png" height="556" title="Cluster Approach" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(Humanitarian Response n.d.a)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
Key Actors</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0ZAPhLAUTdU/VLpU92O48_I/AAAAAAAAAnE/uXNfNBv7a1Y/s1600/key%2Bactors%2Bcluster%2Bsystem.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0ZAPhLAUTdU/VLpU92O48_I/AAAAAAAAAnE/uXNfNBv7a1Y/s1600/key%2Bactors%2Bcluster%2Bsystem.png" height="640" width="625" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(OCHA n.d., pp. 2)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Side note: there is one thing that bothers me about the diagrams, particularly the second one (Key Actors), and that is the fact that the contributions of the affected populations to their own response and recovery are not represented. From what I have learned during this course is that affected populations are also encouraged to help themselves whenever and however possible so that they are involved in the process and feel useful rather than helpless.<br />
<br />
So what did I learn about the cluster system approach?<br />
<br />
In short, the cluster system is a network of organisations that come together to mobilise a well-rounded response in the event of a disaster, provided that assistance has been requested and/or permission has been granted (Dunham 2014; Humanitarian Response n.d.c). The members of the Global Health Cluster (GHC) include major players in the humanitarian aid sectors as well as some of the smaller ones. <br />
<br />
Partners in the GHC (UN actors in bold):<br />
<br />
<b>FAO, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF</b>, African Humanitarian Action, American Refugee Comm, CARE, Catholic Relief Service, Center for Disease Control, Columbia, Concern Worldwide, ECHO, Handicap Intl, Harvard, Help Age Intl, IFRC, ICMH, Intl Council of Nurses, Intl Medical Corps, Johns Hopkins, M<span style="background-color: white; color: #545454; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18.2000007629395px;">é</span>decins du Monde, Merlin, OFDA, Save the Children, US/UK, Terre des Hommes, WADEM, Women’s Commission, World Vision International<br />
<br />
Observers:<br />
<br />
ICRC, Interaction, MSF and the Sphere Project<br />
<br />
(WHO cited in Dunham 2014, pp. 54)<br />
<br />
Each of the contributing partners brings their own knowledge, experience and capabilities in at least one of the key sector of emergency response. These include:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Health</li>
<li>Protection</li>
<li>Agriculture</li>
<li>Emergency Telecommunication</li>
<li>Camp Management & Coordination</li>
<li>Emergency Shelter</li>
<li>Emergency Telecommunication</li>
<li>Sanitation, Water and Hygiene</li>
<li>Nutrition</li>
<li>Logistics</li>
<li>Education</li>
<li>Early Recovery</li>
</ul>
<br />
(Humanitarian Response, n.d.a)<br />
<br />
The approach itself involves the coordination and allocation of activities between the organisations based on their particular fields of interest and expertise (Dunham 2014; Humanitarian Response, n.d.a). It also involves having the response systems and the roles and responsibilities of various agencies in place ahead of time, before a disaster hits to facilitate timely action (Dunham 2014). The first OCHA diagram in this post (Cluster Approach) indicates which organisations can be expected to take the lead in each sector, which I found to be very helpful in picturing a response scenario. The GHC is led by the World Health Organization (WHO), while the approach is led by Humanitarian and Emergency Relief Coordinator(s) to whom the WHO is accountable (Dunham 2014). <br />
<br />
The Emergency Relief Coordinator or ECR is responsible for overseeing emergencies requiring humanitarian assistance from the UN (Humanitarian Response, n.d.b). The ECR may appoint a Humanitarian Coordinator or HC in the country impacted by disaster that will determine whether an international response is required and if so, will ensure the appropriate the response activities are organised accordingly (Humanitarian Response, n.d.b). The HC is also responsible for establishing and leading the Humanitarian Country Team (HCT), a forum including representatives from the Cluster lead agencies. This forum is tasked with strategic and operational decision-making and supervision (Humanitarian Response, n.d.b).<br />
<br />
The GHC strives to support, contribute to and operate in conjunction with the national coordination mechanisms that are already in place (Dunham 2014). In fact, it aims to include the national health players in co-leading the response whenever and in whatever way possible (Dunham 2014).<br />
<br />
The functions of the GHC at the country level outlined in our Study Guide are (more or less) to:<br />
<br />
<ol>
<li>Coordinate processes and inclusion of key actors in Cluster forums</li>
<li>Foster relationships with other important stakeholders</li>
<li>Assess, analyse and monitor the situation and response to identify gaps in assistance</li>
<li>Strategise and fill gaps</li>
<li>Put together contingency plans</li>
<li>Set standards</li>
<li>Train and build local capacity for emergency response</li>
<li>Perform surveillance and reporting activities</li>
<li>Advocate for, collect, prepare and deploy resources</li>
<li>Act as the provider of last resort</li>
</ol>
<br />
(Dunham 2014)<br />
<br />
Number 10 (provider of last resort), is always a difficult one for me. I would not expect that any country would want to get to the point where they are looking at their last resort and the GHC system has so many key players in it with so many resources, that it hardly seems worthy of the term. I would certainly not look at it as “scraping the bottom of the barrel”. However, I do understand that the principle is to only activate the GHC response when there is no other option. I presume the goal is to wait and see if the country itself can mount an adequate response without external involvement in an effort to preserve autonomy and independence. However, waiting until the situation becomes dire likely means that there will be a considerably more serious problem to deal with and more resources will be required.<br />
<br />
The Humanitarian Response website provides specific key points as to why the Cluster system approach is beneficial and I honestly cannot agree more. <br />
<br />
First, there is the point of increased transparency and accountability (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c). From my experience, people behave better when other people are watching them and when they have to answer to others for their actions. Aid organisations are trusted with a great deal of money, resources and leeway when it comes to entering a country and providing assistance. They are also not immune to corruption and potentially harmful behaviour. However, working alongside other organisations helps to minimise the risk of inefficient and potentially harmful activities.<br />
<br />
The second reason is enhanced predictability (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c). Knowing exactly which organisations are supposed to do what and in what time frame would save a lot of time trying to sort that out during an actual disaster when time is of the essence (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c). It also means that organisations know what is to be expected of them and their fellow Cluster members so they can properly prepare.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, having one point of contact within the humanitarian aid system facilitates engagement with national and local authorities and therefore the entire response process (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c).<br />
<br />
The fourth beneficial aspect of the Cluster approach is the inclusion of the affected communities, which helps to ensure that the response proceeds with the guidance and acceptance of local people and authorities (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c). A response that is well informed by the needs and wants of the local population maximises the likelihood that the solutions will be appropriate and effective.<br />
<br />
The fifth advantage of the GHC is more effective advocacy. The Cluster provides a scenario in which organisations can advocate together, which helps to give their concerns more credence and importance to donors (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c). It also helps narrow the focus of donors to giving to one body instead of having to choose between several different organisations, which could dilute the resources available. This way, all of the funds are pooled together and allocated to different sectors based on need.<br />
<br />
Lastly, the system utilises joint strategic and operational planning when it comes to organising activities between and within agencies and clusters to maximise productivity and proficiency (Humanitarian Response, n.d.c).<br />
<br />
The Cluster system seems like a very practical and logical approach to me. I am a strong supporter of multidisciplinary and holistic approaches to health care and this course has illustrated that the same is undeniably true for disaster management. After all, it is not exactly helpful to set someone’s broken leg if they are just going to die of dehydration or malnutrition. I think that coordinating the response activities in all major sectors from one point of origin just makes sense to help everything run smoothly. It is also one of the best ways to minimise the likelihood of gaps and prevent duplicating efforts, which could result in an unnecessary surplus of resources. Finally, I was pleased to see that logistics was included as a key sector all on its own since getting the right resources in the right amount to the right place at the right time is highly important, but can be quite complicated.<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Dunham J 2014, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br />
Humanitarian Response n.d.a, <i>What is the Cluster Approach?</i>, viewed 3 January 2015, < http://www.humanitarianresponse.info/coordination/clusters/what-cluster-approach><br />
<br />
Humanitarian Response n.d.b, <i>Who does what?</i>, viewed 3 January 2015, < http://www.humanitarianresponse.info/about-clusters/who-does-what ><br />
<br />
Humanitarian Response n.d.c, <i>Why do we need the Cluster Approach?</i>, viewed 3 January 2015, <http://www.humanitarianresponse.info/coordination/clusters/why-do-we-need-cluster-approach><br />
<br />
OCHA n.d., <i>How are disaster relief efforts organized? – Cluster Approach and Key Actors</i>, viewed 3 January 2015, <https://business.un.org/en/documents/6852>.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Eryn</div>
<br />travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-20928178176190696322015-01-04T22:46:00.000-08:002015-01-17T06:42:41.886-08:00Disaster Management: Characteristics of Different Disasters<div>
The process of disaster management requires the identification and consideration of the various characteristics of different disasters.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div>
The following table classifies disasters based on their onset and duration.</div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LA6CIXp_Evs/VLWk5ja2DaI/AAAAAAAAAeQ/uqJ-AWIT8kA/s1600/Duration%2Bof%2Bdisasters.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LA6CIXp_Evs/VLWk5ja2DaI/AAAAAAAAAeQ/uqJ-AWIT8kA/s1600/Duration%2Bof%2Bdisasters.png" height="537" width="640" /></a></div>
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I have rearranged the next three tables to reflect how I wanted to display the other characteristics of disasters.</div>
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The next table details the hazard, vulnerabilities and scale typical of each type of disaster.</div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HIHg3wVf3as/VLXhlPrtj-I/AAAAAAAAAjM/Uf13PjJqO68/s1600/Scale%2Bof%2BDisasters.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HIHg3wVf3as/VLXhlPrtj-I/AAAAAAAAAjM/Uf13PjJqO68/s1600/Scale%2Bof%2BDisasters.png" height="2027" width="700" /></a></div>
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The following table outlines the different health impacts that can be expected to arise as a result of various disasters. Interestingly, all disasters have one direct health impact in common and that should be dealt with: psychological distress.<br />
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Ultimately, I found that the most interesting information provided by the World Health Organisation technical hazard sheets were the details regarding the recommended and inappropriate responses. These are found in the next table.</div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kcyQ3qnInqU/VLFp-bg4RII/AAAAAAAAAeA/gtRTpNz9TnI/s1600/Recommended%2Bresponses.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kcyQ3qnInqU/VLFp-bg4RII/AAAAAAAAAeA/gtRTpNz9TnI/s1600/Recommended%2Bresponses.png" /></a></div>
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Another important commonality that I noticed was that the best approach to disaster management always involves building local capacity and relying on the local teams and resources, regardless of the disaster. Prevention in any manner possible is also always better than having to react and respond after the fact. That is not to say that I was not initially surprised by the consistent opposition to sending help including medical and paramedical staff since that seems like such a standard thing to do in an emergency situation.</div>
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</ul>
<div>
Building local capacity and resilience will be the topic of the blog post "Disaster Management: Building Resilient Cities" in recognition of the importance of that process.</div>
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References for tables:</div>
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1. WHO 2015, <i>DROUGHT – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/drought/en/>.</div>
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2. WHO 2015, <i>EARTHQUAKES– Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/earthquakes/en/>.</div>
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3. WHO 2015, <i>FLOODS– Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/floods/en/>.</div>
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4. WHO 2015, <i>LANDSLIDES – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/landslides/en/></div>
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5. WHO 2015, <i>TROPICAL CYCLONES – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/tropical_cyclones/en/>.</div>
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6. WHO 2015, <i>TSUNAMIS – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/tsunamis/en/>.</div>
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7. WHO 2015, <i>VEGETATION FIRES – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/vegetation_fires/en/>.</div>
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8. WHO 2015, <i>VOLCANOS – Technical Hazard Sheet – Natural Disaster Profiles</i>, viewed 2nd January 2015, <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/volcanos/en/>.</div>
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P.S. While it was difficult for me to decipher whether the answers in some of my tables were entirely correct as there was a degree of interpretation involved, I did manage to find a table in the Sphere Handbook that includes some health impact information that I believe will be quite useful to me in the future.<br />
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<br /></div>
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Sphere Handbook: Public health impact of selected disasters</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-kkTuBYZNj4U/VLX_mY-6dQI/AAAAAAAAAjc/gCP_b-y1PIo/s1600/impacts%2Bof%2Bdisasters1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-kkTuBYZNj4U/VLX_mY-6dQI/AAAAAAAAAjc/gCP_b-y1PIo/s1600/impacts%2Bof%2Bdisasters1.png" height="350" width="565" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;">(Modified from: The Sphere Project 2011, pp. 293)</span></td></tr>
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Reference: </div>
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The Sphere Project 2011, <i>Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, 3rd edn, The Sphere Project, Geneva.</div>
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-54894729849377166362015-01-03T16:09:00.000-08:002015-01-11T17:54:10.602-08:00Disaster Management: Introduction to the Stages InvolvedThe next few blogs will explore aspects of disaster management as this is a primary focus of this course. This first post reviews some of the key points included in the study guide (Dunham 2014, pp. 26-28) for my knowledge and understanding moving forward and begins to touch a bit more on the principles of the Sphere project.<br />
<br />
As outlined in the study guide for the course, modern disaster management is founded on the four following factors:<br />
<ol><ol>
<li><b>Prevention </b>- involves developing and enacting plans to avert disaster situations whenever possible (for example, preventing famine during a drought or proper water management and drainage systems to prevent flooding in an area). In scenarios when a disaster cannot be avoided (for example, a hurricane or tsunami), implementing measures in anticipation of such occurrences to reduce the amount of damage that will occur, particularly loss of life, injury and destruction of property/environment however possible. For example, building homes, business districts and city centres in elevated areas and/or away from the coastline in low lying areas. Hazard resistant designs also help to mitigate the impacts of disasters. For example, some buildings in Japan are being constructed based on the architectural structure of pagodas, which are very adept at withstanding earthquakes.</li>
<li><b>Preparedness </b>- encompasses a community's state of readiness to protect their people, assets, infrastructure and institutions in the event of a disaster. It includes the planning and public education of emergency procedures, the training of civilians and professionals regarding the proper courses of action as well as the allocation of appropriate resources to mount a disaster response.</li>
<li><b>Response </b>- the immediate course of action taken by vested parties (government bodies, local authorities, emergency response teams, volunteer organisations, civilians and any other factions that may apply) to manage the risks and counteract the effects associated with a disaster. The response period begins as soon as it is clear that a disaster is expected. The response itself should be quick and decisive and will be the most involved aspect of health emergency risk management. It encompasses search and rescue, efforts to minimise deaths and injuries as well as the prompt restoration of important infrastructure (health system, etc). Local responders will be the first at the scene and are therefore very important in regards to building response capacity with external assistance arriving after the main disaster has occurred. </li>
<li><b>Recovery</b> - the return to normal or new normal for a society impacted by disaster. Normal could be similar to before the disaster, different or better (the latter of which is preferable). Recovery begins after the response to the initial emergency situation has finished, but the timing of the transition from one state to the next is not necessarily black and white. It involves the restoration of the economic, cultural, social, physical and environmental states of the affected communities. It can be broken down into: (1) short-term recovery (or early recovery according to the Sphere Handbook), which is a temporary state of stabilisation that follows relief and sets the community up for the process of (2) long-term recovery. The length of time for short-term and long-term recovery can vary depending on the capacity of the communities affected. Recovery is the least researched and organised component of disaster management but covers the widest range of activities as the facets of overall recovery are the most varied and extensive.</li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div>
On the ground, the components of disaster management will not necessarily occur sequentially as various aspects of all four may be performed before, during and after the primary disaster event. In addition, subsequent disasters (for example, earthquake aftershocks), will necessitate a reevaluation of circumstances and quite probably the regression to a previous state of disaster management.</div>
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Assessments are key and should be performed to evaluate the process of disaster management after an event so that areas needing improvement can be highlighted, examined and strengthened in the event of future disasters.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div>
The all-hazards approach to disaster management is the course of action that is now recommended. It involves the consideration of all probable risks in emergency scenarios and encompasses planning, early warning systems, evacuation, coordination of activities (between and within sectors), health services and recovery.</div>
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<br />
Personal reflections:<br />
<br />
The different stages of disaster management makes complete sense to me and I also understand why they may not happen in a linear fashion. My perception is that much like research, disaster management is a working progress and sometimes it's necessary to go back a step and deal with a new problem that has arisen in order to proceed in the best possible way. <br />
<br />
I strongly believe in the evaluation process of plan implementation, especially when it comes to actions that impact the health and wellbeing of individuals and communities. Critically assessing what you have done, both as an individual and as a team or organisation is paramount to improving your method of operation and optimising your ability to respond in the future. It's not always easy to examine how you have handled a situation or what your process has been because of the risk of opening yourself to outside criticism or even litigation. But, it really is an essential part of operating as a professional individual or organisation, especially in the public health arena. <br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Dunham J 2014, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br />
The Sphere Project 2011, <i>Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, 3rd edn, The Sphere Project, Geneva.</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-54507182024511160262014-12-31T13:44:00.000-08:002015-01-10T10:43:22.291-08:00What do I Bring to the Table? Take TwoAfter our first few of days in class, I have decided to revisit the question: "What do I bring to the table?"<br />
<br />
I previously thought that I had very little to bring to the table when it came to disaster relief and management other than my enthusiasm and willingness to learn. However, I have realised that I do in fact have a bit more to offer...<br />
<br />
I forgot that when it comes to practical skills, I actually can take blood pressure, record pulse, perform functional assessments (of human movement to help physiotherapists) and perform blood tests. I also remembered that having watched several surgeries in Ghana and Uganda, I am actually quite good with blood and trauma and things that may bother others when they see them.<br />
<br />
I have also realised that I am quite adept at communicating with others in a clear and tactful way. I do not shy away from conversation and while I was worried that I might be too outspoken in the group scenarios in class, I was pleasantly surprised to find that I was happy to take a step back and listen to the perspectives of others or let them take the lead as well. But, if there was a bit of a communication gap or someone had to take the position of leader for a time to get the workflow going, I was happy to step in if no one else seemed willing. I feel that my communication skills and flexibility in manoeuvring within group dynamics could be useful to my working in disaster management. In addition, I also speak three languages: English, French and Italian, so perhaps I could be a useful translator.<br />
<br />
Finally, despite the high level of indecisiveness that plagues my every day life choices in regards to small and relatively trivial matters (i.e. what movie to watch, what to wear in the morning, etc), I actually make big decisions quite quickly. In addition, while I had not previously given it much thought, I have reacted pretty well in emergency situations that I have found myself in such as car accidents or witnessing women suddenly going into labor. For example, my father and I were in a car accident and we ended up upside down in a ditch and while my father (a former police officer) sat frozen at the wheel before releasing his seat belt and landing on his head, I managed to reach over and turn the car off, find an exit and make sure that we made it out quickly and safely. Looking back now, my decisions to act in such situations have been swift and quite level-headed, despite the fact that I do not remember thinking much at all at the time. My decisions during our group disaster scenarios where we had to decide who we would save and who we would leave behind were very much the same. I considered the various options carefully but quickly and made a decision that I still stand by, even upon further examination. <br />
<br />
As our guest lecturer stated on the first day of class, the worst thing that you can do is not make a decision, so hopefully that would also serve me well if I ever end up working in disasters. Of course, there might be occasions when going with my gut or making a quick assessment will not be in everyone's best interest, so I should make sure that I know when to take an extra moment to consider the various options.<br />
<br />
Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-8447721490103717302014-12-26T13:06:00.000-08:002015-01-17T06:39:53.046-08:00Humanitarian Aid as Part of an Agenda<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">What is the wrong way to give humanitarian aid in a conflict?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Can aid in a conflict ever be entirely neutral?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">I have to admit, these are questions that I had not given much thought to since watching episodes of M*A*S*H as a child, especially the episodes where the members of the unit were treating or even simply interacting with North Koreans. I used to think about how nice it was that the American doctors were taking such good care of the North Koreans, treating them the way they would anyone else. I even remembered being surprised that they were treating the soldiers at all, I mean, did that not sort of defeat the purpose? They were trying to win the war after all and the more soldiers they saved on the opposing side the more they had to go up against. Of course, now I realise that the soldiers that they saved probably became prisoners of war being that the M*A*S*H unit was a military faction. So while it was good of "Trapper John", "Hawkeye" and "Hotlips" to save the North Korean soldiers that came into their facility, those that they did were likely ultimately used as bargaining chips in the war effort for the American and South Korean side. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">I also now realise that it would probably have been against international law to not treat the wounded of either side. But of course, this leads me to even more questions, one of which is: when did warring parties start treating the other side's wounded and what documents outline those obligations? Did the North Korean side have the same sort of facilities to treat their soldiers and people or the soldiers they took as captives on their side and what happened if they did not. Were they as willing as the Americans to treat the opposing side just as well as their own? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The rights of prisoners of war and individuals wounded by conflict (combatants or non-combatants) are outlined in the Geneva Convention, protected under international law and enforced by the United Nations (Draper 1998). The regulations in the Convention dictate the proper non-discriminatory treatment of all people (including food and water and medical care), should they be captured by the opposing side (provided they are a signatory to the Convention). After all, individuals who are fighting in a conflict or are captured as civilians are really just pawns in a much bigger game over which the vast majority of them have very little control (Draper 1998). They are, in essence, just people who have become weapons and casualties of war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Side note: I would be lying if I said that the Convention was not confusing to me. From what I understand, it basically states that it is okay to for military forces to kill and wound members of the opposing side but if you do capture them and/or they are no longer able to fight (quite possibly because you have injured them so severely) you are legally bound to provide them with basic standards of care and humane treatment. That premise seems inherently contradictory to me. Did Guantanamo Bay not therefore violate the Convention every day that it was operational? And why is it that military forces are allowed to kill each other (and often civilians in the process) by some means but not others? Mustard gas and nuclear bombs are not okay but machine guns, grenades and other bombs are because it's okay to kill or maim someone but you have to do it humanely and without torturing them? You can detain someone but not take hostages? I'm sure that these rules have evolved over a great deal of time as a result of a tremendous amount of consideration and probably do make some sense in practice. But, from the outside, it is really difficult to marry the different rules outlined in the convention in my mind. Moreover, I find it truly disturbing that the human race has established a set of rules on how to be at war with each other. I do suppose however that if the international community decides to allow war, there should be some lines drawn in the sand that cannot (or at least should not) be crossed without punitive action or recourse.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In more recent times, warring sides have developed alternative strategies and found other ways to utilise civilian populations to fulfil their own agendas. These tactics are more sociopolitical than artillery-based and involve convincing the civilian populations to not support the opposing forces. Another term used to denote this kind of strategy is "counter-insurgency" (Williamson 2011). There are two main courses of action through which this can be accomplished: the "carrot-and-stick" method or the "winning hearts and minds" method (Williamson 2011).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The carrot-and-stick method consists of rewarding those civilians who do not help or support the efforts of the opposing side (often referred to as "insurgents") with assistance of some kind, whether it be monetary or otherwise (Williamson 2011). The other side of the carrot-and-stick method involves using the military to punish those who do support the insurgents (Williamson 2011). The economists in my life are rather fond of this kind of strategy, believing strongly in the power of incentives, especially financial ones. On the other hand, whoever can offer the most money is not always the side with the best of intentions so perhaps bribery is not the best way forward...</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The second, seemingly less forceful (not to mention corrupt) way of going about it is the winning hearts and minds method. This involves providing humanitarian aid with the goal of winning over the support, trust and fealty of the civilian populations by showing them how benevolent your side is and how good their life could be if they cooperate with you (Williamson 2011). The goal is to convince the civilians in the area that your way is better, drain the opposing force of their local resources and in doing so win the battle of wills (not necessarily weapons) (Williamson 2011).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A third option that can be implemented alone or in addition to either of the former strategies is establishing proper governance and contributing to the capacity of the domestic court system to bring the rule of law back into the society and promote justice (Williamson 2011).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Neither the carrot-and-stick or the winning the hearts and mind method have proven to be very effective and in fact the strategies have caused problems (Williamson 2011). When implemented by international military forces in the short term, the hearts and mind strategy has been shown to provide only limited and temporary security benefits and has ultimately hindered the success of the military efforts in Afghanistan (Williamson 2011). The third method however, is useful in situations where the states are in the process of collapsing or have already (Williamson 2011). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The mere fact that the first two methods are problematic highlights what many have started to believe and that is the need for distinct and intentional separation between humanitarian assistance and military factions (Williamson 2011). While humanitarian associations and military forces need to communicate and develop trust in one another to ensure that humanitarian volunteers are not being sent into particularly dangerous areas, their courses of action should not cross over more than that (Williamson 2011). Most importantly, humanitarian aid should be politically neutral and have no ulterior motives other than providing assistance to people in need.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">I can understand both sides of the argument. Humanitarian associations do want to see an end to conflict and a re-establishment of stable government so that they can help societies move towards recovery, independence and equal treatment for all of their people (regardless of gender, race, culture, etc). So in that regard, it does make sense for them to be supportive of the military forces that are working towards those same goals. The military could also help to protect their volunteers from attacks. From the military's perspective, helping the communities on the ground can benefit them by reducing the local resistance that they may face.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">On the other side, aid organisations are, as one of our lecturers stated, businesses. They need to protect their reputations and maintain the public's trust in their organisations so that they can continue to:</span><br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Receive support and financial resources and</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Operate in areas of conflict and tension, offering assistance to those in need.</span></li>
</ol>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The goals of military forces can inherently conflict with those of aid organisations in that they are aiming to debilitate the opposing side and in doing so may cause the very damage that aid organisations have to help those societies recover from. In addition, there have been military actions that once known have not received public approval and have in fact been widely condemned. For example, some of the deplorable behaviour exhibited by American soldiers in the Middle East brought the American forces a great deal of negative publicity. That sort of behaviour would have likely damaged the reputations of aid organisations associated and/or working with the American military in that area (and possibly around the world). This may have consequently interfered with the organisations' abilities to function and possibly even endangered their personnel.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">While it may be convenient to share responsibilities in other situations (i.e. natural disaster scenarios), perhaps in the case of conflict settings, aid organisations and military factions should stay their own course so that their goals remain clear in the eyes of the public. In the "principles of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent (IFRC) Movement and NGOs in Disaster Response Programmes", the IFRC actually states that the aid that it provides "will not be used to further a particular political or religious standpoint" (IFRC 1994). Frankly, it seems like the right idea to me, otherwise the situation could become quite confusing.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Finally, upon reading the various perspectives on humanitarianism at <a href="http://insidedisaster.com/haiti/the-aid-industry/what-is-humanitarianism">http://insidedisaster.com/haiti/the-aid-industry/what-is-humanitarianism</a>, it is difficult to not feel a bit despondent and frustrated at the state of the world. Some people point at the responsibility of human beings to help one another while others criticise philanthropy along the lines of "colonialism" "the white man's burden" (the feeling of needing to step in and fix everything according to what western societies see as the right way) (Inside Disaster n.d.). The rest criticise the failings of governmental bodies that fail to prevent disasters and/or sufficiently prepare their societies to minimise damages and therefore result in the need for the "band aid" solution of humanitarian action (Inside Disaster n.d.). It's nothing that I have not heard before or even thought myself, but everything that human beings do and have ever done can be seen as having both a positive and negative side, depending on your perspective. We are after all, only human and there are honestly no good deeds that I can think of that are entirely selfless or devoid of potential harm. While it's very important to critically reflect on all of the consequences of our actions (intended or not), being too judgemental and disparaging is more likely to lead to inaction. I feel that humanitarianism will continue to evolve as our societies do as well and I hope that how we decide to deal with circumstances will only improve going forward, but I sincerely hope that it does not revert back to a state where we simply decide to never take any action.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">This is an interesting diagram about donor government decision-making that I found while reading up on the famine in Somalia. It highlights the various risks that donor governments must consider when deciding when and how to provide assistance to other countries.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OZTfjBVdrac/VK8dWE8l_CI/AAAAAAAAAb0/gf3F6OtbU7o/s1600/donor%2Bgovernment%2Brisks.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OZTfjBVdrac/VK8dWE8l_CI/AAAAAAAAAb0/gf3F6OtbU7o/s1600/donor%2Bgovernment%2Brisks.png" height="336" width="640" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">(Bailey 2013, pp. 48)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">References:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Bailey, R 2013, <i>Managing Famine Risk: Linking Early Warning to Early Action, A Chatham House Report</i>, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, viewed 29 December 2014, < http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Energy%2C%20Environment%20and%20Development/0413r_earlywarnings.pdf>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Draper, GIAD 1998, <i>Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper</i>, Kluwer Law International, The Hague.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">IFRC 1994, <i>Code of conduct</i>, viewed 24 December 2014, <http://www.ifrc.org/en/publications-and-reports/code-of-conduct/>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Inside Disaster n.d., <i>What is Humanitarianism?</i>, viewed 24 December 2014, <http://insidedisaster.com/haiti/the-aid-industry/what-is-humanitarianism>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Williamson, JA 2011, 'Using humanitarian aid to ‘win hearts and minds’: a costly failure?', <i>International Review of the Red Cross</i>, vol. 93, no. 884, pp. 1035-1061, DOI 10.1017/S1816383112000380.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Eryn</span>travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-5937426355364373242014-12-22T19:10:00.000-08:002015-01-17T06:54:38.040-08:00The one minute paper<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On day three of our weeklong face-to-face sessions, we were first asked to take stock of the knowledge we had gained thus far and to consider any remaining queries that we had which had not yet been addressed in the lectures. We were given one minute to write the paper, which was then sent in to the course coordinator Dr. Jo Dunham. Here is how I answered the two questions:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>What is the most useful, meaningful or
interesting thing you have learned?<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>The most interesting thing that I have
learned in this class so far is about all of the different laws that govern
humanitarian workers abroad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I knew that
the domestic laws had to be followed but I had never thought about the
international statutes that need to be adhered to and what those are.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I also found it very interesting to learn
about all of the different disasters that have taken place, including many that I had never heard
much about (for example, the Solomon Island floods).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>What questions do I still have?<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>I am still wondering about the best
framework for making decisions in disasters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>What are the most important things to take care of first?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Who should we save first (i.e. children versus
adults, healthy versus sick, etc)?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How
do we go about making those decisions and rationalising our decisions with the public
in a way that does not cause anger and distrust?<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Eryn Wright</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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I quite enjoyed the activity and was particularly grateful for the opportunity to reflect on what I had learned and to verbalise the questions that still plagued me halfway through the week. However, the time limit in class forced me to cut my paper short (well, for me anyway), so I thought I could go a bit more into detail here and include some thoughts that I had to leave by the wayside earlier.<br />
<br />
One of the most useful things that I have learned about so far but did not have the chance to include in my original paper was the existence of the Sphere Handbook. It has been very interesting to peruse the humanitarian charter and minimum standards to learn more about the nuts and bolts of responding to a disaster situation. However, I have to say that despite having access to the Sphere Handbook, I am still a bit bewildered in regards to what rules or guidelines we should follow to make the best decisions when faced with difficult situations on the ground. That being said, another one of the more meaningful things that I learned during our first in-class session was that above all else, it is imperative that you do make a decision, otherwise nothing will get done, the situation will not change and no one will be helped.<br />
<br />
Hopefully as I continue throughout the course, the questions that I have will be answered and the topics that I find a bit confusing will become more clear to me.<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-11448120597584545462014-12-21T11:10:00.000-08:002015-01-15T13:47:57.380-08:00The Needs of Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons and Asylum Seekers<span style="font-family: inherit;">While they share common characteristics in that they are all fleeing some form of danger to their health and well-being, there are distinct and important differences between refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs) and asylum seekers. <b>Refugees</b> have been granted asylum by a country other than that of their origin and/or residence and are protected from being expelled by that country by the principle of non-refoulement. <b>IDPs</b> have left their homes and fled to another location but have not crossed international borders, instead they remain in their country of origin and/or residence. Finally, <b>asylum seekers</b> have applied for refugee status with a country other than that of their origin and are awaiting the decision on that status.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">There are also <b>stateless people</b> who are people without a nationality of any kind (UNHCR 2015). This means that they were not granted a nationality by birth from the government in the country where they were born or that of which their parents were nationals (UNHCR 2015). They were also not granted a nationality based on where they have lived a significant portion of their lives (UNHCR 2015). This may be the result of discrimination against certain groups (racism, sexism, conflict between tribes, etc), poor legislation or incompetent government bodies (UNHCR 2015). The <span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px;">1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons provides more information about the legal definition of a stateless person.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">These different groups of people have different health needs and levels of protection afforded to them. As previously mentioned, people who are granted refugee status are protected by international law (whether the country in which they are a refugee has signed the convention or not) from being expelled or sent back to the country that they fled (UNHCR 2011). As a refugee, an individual enjoys the same protection and rights afforded to the nationals and other residents of that country for as long as the status of refugee is necessary (as it is not necessarily permanent). That is to say that if someone repatriates voluntarily to their country of origin or become a naturalised citizen of the country in which they were a refugee, they no longer have that status. The other rights of refugees include:</span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to work</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to an education</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to health care</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to housing</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to freedom of religion</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to access the court system</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to be issued an identity and travel documents </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to public relief and assistance (which I assume means the right to access unemployment, maternity pay and disability funds until they can find a job if they can work) </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to move freely around the country</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">the right to family unity</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">(UNHCR 2011)</span><br />
<div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Refugees also have the right not to be punished for entering the state or territory illegally (UNHCR 2011), something that I found conflicted with Australia's policy on people arriving by boat. I actually had never heard of that right, but now that I have I certainly have a greater appreciation for the stance that many people have taken against turning the boats back to Indonesia and settling the asylum seekers arriving by boat on Nauru or Manus Island.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">But of course, asylum seekers have not yet been granted refugee status and in fact that status can be refused for the following reasons: </span><br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">They have been unable to provide sufficient and legitimate evidence of persecution or danger to their well-being warranting refuge from their country of origin, or-</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">They have committed a serious crime (war crime, crime against peace, crimes against humanity, non-political crimes (for example rape, murder, assault), or crimes that are contrary to the policies and principles of the UN).</span></li>
</ol>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">(UNHCR 2011)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">This is where the waters can become a little murky and the clarity of laws, well, cloudy. According to the <i>UNHCR's Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum Seekers</i> released from 1999, the arbitrary detention of asylum seekers violates their human rights and may also be a breach of international law. After all, asylum seekers are in essence refugees, they just have not yet been given that status (UNHCR 1999). What is considered detention? It is the confinement of asylum seekers to prison-like environments, detention centres, narrow spaces and essentially anywhere that is an enclosed area that they cannot leave without having to depart the territory completely (Nauru for example, which is pretty upsetting considering the fact that Australia signed the 1951 UN Refugee Convention) (UNHCR 1999). It is not the same as restricting someone's movement, so for example, someone who is living in a home or place of residence but is limited in terms of where they are allowed to visit or travel is not considered a to be in detention (UNHCR 1999). Detention is especially advised against (and in my opinion, reprehensible) in the case of vulnerable groups such as women, children, people with special needs and unaccompanied minors (UNHCR 1999). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">But of course, there are always caveats. Asylum seekers may be detained if there are extenuating circumstances and detention is deemed "necessary", especially to maintain public safety. This loophole is one that the Australian government appears to have taken full advantage of. These circumstances include everything from verifying documents and the reasons for seeking refuge to suspicions of criminal behaviour and the intentional destruction of identification (UNHCR 1999). Asylum seekers must also make themselves known to authorities as soon as possible so that the processing of their status can begin (otherwise they are essentially staying illegally) (UNHCR 1999). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">However, the UNHCR states that alternatives to detention should be considered first. I understood this last statement as an "innocent until proven guilty and thrown in a detention centre" clause and it made even more sense to look at it that way when I read that asylum seekers should be able to be "released on bail" (for a price that is not set too high of course) (UNHCR 1999). For detention to be lawful, it must not be discriminatory (a rule that I struggled with somewhat given the special remarks against detaining children and women, which to be fair, is slightly discriminatory, but perhaps the rule applies more to cases of race, religion and creed) (UNHCR 1999). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Overall, the UNHCR is unsurprisingly against the detention of asylum seekers, especially when it is prolonged and the conditions are below the normal standards of living (UNHCR 1999). This applies to those who arrive by sea as well, or as they are referred to in Australia "boat people". According to the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocols, if the boats reach Australian waters or Australian land, the people seeking refuge must be allowed to enter Australia as asylum seekers (Roberts 2014). The same rules apply to other countries receiving refugees.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">This brings me to my next point, the rights of asylum seekers and the conditions in detention centres. Asylum seekers (and stateless persons) are protected both by the national laws of the country as well as the regional and international laws relating to human rights (UNHCR 1999). These outline the basic standards of treatment of human beings (UNHCR 1999). Asylum seekers must also abide by these laws.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The way that I understand it, IDPs are a bit of a different story because they still reside within the boundaries of their country so they are protected by national laws. However, they should also be protected by regional and international laws pertaining to human rights (although whether the country abides by those laws or establishes their own that in fact conflict with international laws depends on the country). There may also be cases in which there are no established national laws because of conflict or lack of government. In this case, the regional and international laws would be the ones that applied. IDPs may require special protection if they are fleeing conflict or persecution in a particular area and it would be up to national or international forces (depending on who will or can offer protection) to do so.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The health needs of refugees, IDPs and asylum seekers are likely to be very similar and would depend more on the circumstances they are fleeing than their official status. Treatment for trauma (mental and physical), malnutrition, dehydration, communicable diseases, sexual and reproductive health needs, chronic disease management, basic sanitation and hygiene, vaccinations for preventable diseases, as well as spiritual and emotional wellbeing are all potential health needs of all three groups. All three groups are fleeing something, whether it's a natural disaster or conflict and that something could have caused or facilitated one or many health problems. Both the basic and special (concerns attributable to the disaster) health needs of those people need to be looked after. The only thing that will change is who will be meeting those needs, will it be the local government, international governments, NGOs, etc? Ultimately someone has to...</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">According to the UNHCR, there were 51.2 million forcibly displaced persons worldwide as of 2013: 16.7 million refugees, 33.3 million IDPs and approximately 1.07 million asylum seekers (UNHCR 2013). There are also an estimated 10 million people who are defined as stateless (UNHCR 2013). A staggering 86% of refugees end up in developing countries, meaning that on a global scale, the number that ever reach places like Australia is quite small (UNHCR 2013). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In closing I thought I would include some personal reflections. I can honestly say that I see both sides of the debate when it comes to accepting refugees. I understand the desire for restrictions, especially on those that do not apply through the regular channels. It is difficult to know whether those individuals pose a threat to public safety and I appreciate the fact that the government's first responsibility is to protect its own people. The recent terror attack (although some have argued about calling it that) at the Lindt cafe in Sydney will unfortunately not help the case against detention considering the fact that the perpetuator came to Australia as a refugee. Then again, he was only one person and every society has its bad apples, are we going to let the actions of a few people with bad intentions dictate how we treat all refugees and asylum seekers? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">I also understand the fact that Australia has to try to find some way to deter people from getting on old, rickety, dangerous boats that tend to tip, placing all of the lives on board in danger. However, refusing refuge seems to fly directly in the face of international law and its responsibilities as a nation. Surely there is another way, but of course I am not a politician so even if I came up with an idea it would not mean much.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">I can even sometimes understand the perspective that some people really just want to come to Australia for a better life and in fact have nothing to fear in their home countries and in that case aren't in fact refugees (unfortunately border patrol shows are not helping to change that growing view). But, I also believe that the government should not automatically assume that is the case from the start. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">My husband's cousin Nikki has worked for the Multicultural Development Association (MDA) for several years and has recently been sent to Nauru along with her partner to help settle refugees there. The conditions that she speaks of are appalling. Essentially their role is to get people working and to help set up some sort of economy because there is none. There is almost nothing there except for people and resources that come in very infrequently. In all honesty, it sounds like a place that people should be seeking refuge from, not where those in need should be sent to. Who knows, maybe the conditions will improve over time, I mean I do have an enormous amount of faith in Nikki, but it certainly will be a herculean task. Then again, maybe other countries will soon start accepting applications for refugee status from people looking to escape the conditions they are subjected to on Nauru. It certainly does not adhere to the UNHCR's principles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">References:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Roberts, G 2014, <i>Asylum seeker boat turn-back questions going unanswered by Government, says UNHCR</i>, ABC News, viewed 21 December 2014, <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-04-23/un-on-asylum-seekers/5405688>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">UNHCR 1999, <i>UNHCR's Revised Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards Relating to the Detention of Asylum Seekers, </i>Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva, viewed 20 December 2014, <http://www.unhcr.org.au/pdfs/detentionguidelines.pdf.></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">UNHCR 2011, <i>The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocols</i>, UNHCR, Geneva, viewed 20 December 2014, <http://unhcr.org.au/unhcr/images/1951%20Convention%20Q%20%20A.pdf>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">UNHCR 2013, <i>UNHCR Global Trends 2013</i>, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva, viewed 20 December 2014, <http://www.unhcr.org/5399a14f9.html#_ga=1.177763109.147757372.1420566571>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">UNHCR 2015, <i>What is Statelessness?</i>, viewed 19 December 2014, <http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c158.html>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Eryn</span>travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-86674897846089975632014-12-15T19:41:00.000-08:002015-01-10T12:01:33.901-08:00Examples of Disasters Past<div style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-top: 0pt; mso-line-break-override: none; punctuation-wrap: hanging; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed; word-break: normal;">
In preparation for our first day of the face-to-face workshop, we were instructed to put together a short presentation detailing the timeline of a historical disaster of our choice. There were several disasters that I found particularly interesting so I have decided to present two of them: the Bosnian war and the 2011 famine in Somalia.<br />
<br />
The Bosnian War:<br />
<br />
I knew very little about the events in Bosnia growing up because I was so young when they took place. I remember hearing the name Sarajevo and brief references to the fact that it had become a very dangerous place at one point, but I never knew the details of what had happened there. As an adult I have become increasingly interested in the history of the region, especially after having met people from Croatia and Slovenia. I therefore decided that it was about time that I learn more about the Bosnian war and this activity provided the perfect opportunity to explore the man-made disaster. What I did not expect, was how difficult it would be to find concrete information about the war as several of the resources that I found had conflicting dates listed for specific events. This presentation contains what I considered to be the most consistent information, or best approximation of what occurred based on the various accounts that I have read.<br />
<br />
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<br />
References for "The Bosnian War":<br />
<br />
1. AFP 2013, <i>Timeline: Conflict in Bosnia-Hercegovina</i>, viewed 14 December 2014, <http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2012/04/04/timeline-conflict-bosnia-hercegovina>.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
2. Ball, P, Tabeau, E & Verwimp, P 2007, <i>The Bosnian Book of Dead: Assessment of the Database (Full Report)</i>, Housholds in Conflict Network, The Institute of Developmental Studies, University of Sussex, England, viewed 15 December 2014, <https://hrdag.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/rdn5.pdf>.<br />
<br />
3. BBC 2012, <i>Bosnia-Hercegovina timeline</i>, viewed 14 December 2014, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1066981.stm>.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
4. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian 2013, <i>Milestones: 1989-1992, The Breakup of Yugoslavia, 1990-1992</i>, viewed 14 December 2014, <https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/breakup-yugoslavia><br />
<br />
The 2011 Famine in Somalia:<br />
<br />
One of the reasons that I found the 2011 famine in Somalia so interesting was that I had not heard much about it. I had heard a great deal about previous famines in that region, particularly in Ethiopia, but was completely unaware of this particular disaster. What I found most disconcerting was the fact that I was living in Uganda at the exact time that the famine took place. From what I remember about the news coverage that we were receiving at the time, the focus was mostly on the political uprisings in Egypt, Libya and the Ivory Coast as well as the separation of Sudan and the upcoming election in Uganda itself (the latter of which ultimately took place without issue). Another issue could have been the general desensitisation to reports of problems in Somalia because it has been an unstable country for so long. In other words, there may have been reports of the famine while we were there that we failed to take notice of due to the fact that the country had been in conflict for so long.<br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><br /></span>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-align: center;">References for "The 2011 Famine in Somalia":</span><br />
<br />
1. BBC 2011, <i>Somali famine spreads to three more areas says UN</i>, viewed 13 December 2014, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14394659>.<br />
<br />
2. Lautze, S, Bell, W, Alinovi, L & Russo, L 2012, ‘Early warning, late response (again): The 2011 famine in Somalia’, <i>Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 43-49.<br />
<br />
3. Salama, P, Moloney, G, Bilukha, OO, Talley, L, Maxwell, D, Hailey, P, Hillbruner, C, Masese-Mwirigi, L, Odundo, E & Golden, MH 2012, ‘Famine in Somalia: Evidence for a declaration’, <i>Global Food Security</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 13-19.<br />
<br />
4. Seal, A & Bailey, R 2013, ‘The 2011 Famine in Somalia: lessons learnt from a failed response?’, <i>Conflict and Health</i>, vol. 7, no. 22, pp. 1-5.<br />
<br />
5. Slim, H 2012, <i>IASC Real-Time Evaluation of the Humanitarian Response to the Horn of Africa Drought Crisis in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya</i>, Synthesis Report, Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC).<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-71290498321808130862014-12-14T18:42:00.000-08:002015-01-15T21:28:22.749-08:00Disaster TreesThe study guide for the course included an activity called the "disaster tree", in which we were instructed to classify the various disasters that impact humans into four categories: "natural", "man-made", "hybrid" and "intentional". The tree, like our knowledge about disaster, should evolve and change throughout the semester and as such, I will add a number of different versions to this post over time. The following is my first attempt at classifying all of the disasters that I can think of off of the top of my head.<br />
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My first attempt was not bad, however reading through the course material I have noticed that I was missing several disasters. Among them were landslides and avalanches, nuclear catastrophes, famines and epidemics, all of which I knew of but had not come to mind when I thought of disasters. I also had not included limnic eruptions, a disaster that I learned about by watching the SBS series "Countdown to Catastrophe". Limnic eruptions occur when lakes near volcanoes fill with carbon dioxide which then erupts and asphyxiates the living beings in the surrounding area.<br />
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After reading “Natural Disasters” by Redmond (2005), I also began to consider what constitutes natural and man-made disasters very differently, which led me to propose an alternate disaster tree including more of the events that I have been learning about. In the journal article, Redmond states that all disasters are essentially human made based on where and how people choose or are obligated to live. As a result, I removed the vast majority of the disasters that I had initially listed as natural and reclassified them under the “Hybrid” branch instead. The only two that I left in the “Natural” column were asteroids and tornadoes because they can occur anywhere and severely impact populations regardless of how they live. While it is widely accepted that anthropogenic (human made) climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of storms and other natural disasters, its impact (if any) on tornadoes is still unknown. However, I did ultimately add tornadoes to the hybrid branch as well, due to the fact that some populations of people have chosen to reside in areas that are frequently hit by tornadoes (i.e. “tornado alley” in the United States) despite the well-known risks associated with living there.<br />
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While I do understand Redmond’s point of view, I struggle with the idea that all natural disasters are fundamentally human made. After all, as a species humans do need to live somewhere and there is nowhere on Earth that is completely immune to all forms of natural disasters. Therefore, human beings would be responsible for all natural disasters that affect them simply by being alive and in my opinion that is not enough of a reason to deem a species culpable. It would be the equivalent of saying that the damage to animal populations caused by a lightning-generated forest fire is fundamentally the fault of the animals for living in the area. There are simply some consequences of disasters that cannot be entirely avoided or prevented.<br />
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However, I do recognise that human beings are contributing to climate change and an increase in the severity and frequency of many natural disasters (i.e. storms, earthquakes, etc), thereby making some of them and the aspects of their occurrences both natural and man-made. But, since some number of natural disasters would occur with or without human contributions because of the Earth’s systems, it is my belief that the disasters that I had re-classified as hybrids for the second version of my disaster tree should actually fall under both the natural and hybrid branches. I have therefore added the anthropogenically-driven increase in the frequency and severity of natural disasters under the hybrid branch instead of re-naming them all as that is the aspect of them that I consider to be man-made. I have also added some more disasters that I had not previously included such as technological accidents, transportation accidents, The following is the final version of my disaster tree that reflects my own views of how disasters should be classified.<br />
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Disasters can also be classified under different characteristics. The following tree classifies natural disasters based on where they occur: "above the Earth's surface" or "under the Earth's surface".<br />
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I decided that I would position a disaster under the heading of "below Earth's surface" if the process began under the Earth's crust, even if the ultimate impact with humans occurred on the Earth's surface. For example, a tsunami is considered a disaster when it makes landfall and destroys life and man-made structures by flooding areas. However, tsunamis are typically caused by earthquakes in the ocean floor and therefore the process begins under the Earth's surface. This is how I decided that I would proceed with completing my tree in this case, but I am sure it is not the only way that classification could take place. I have found that classifying disaster can in fact be quite subjective depending on the factors and perspectives that are being considered.<br />
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Disasters can also be classified based on the nature of the systems through which they occur in the environment. The following tree categorises the disasters based on whether they are "meteorological/hydrological" or "biological" disasters.<br />
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There are surely other ways to classify disasters, perhaps by their impacts on humans, the type of damage that they cause, or maybe even where they tend to occur. However, these trees would likely be more complicated and have a great deal more crossover between categories as several disasters have similar impacts on human populations. For example, crush injuries, trauma and hypothermia can occur in earthquakes, storms, mudslides and tsunamis alike. There are also many areas on Earth that suffer from a wide range of disasters because of their location and/or topography, etc. Examples include areas with both active volcanoes and lakes that can act as the site of limnic eruptions.<br />
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I will continue to consider the various ways in which disasters can be classified throughout the remainder of this course and how these classifications may or may not be subjective.<br />
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Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-59390917535819505442014-12-13T16:19:00.000-08:002015-01-15T12:08:06.640-08:00SurveillanceThroughout my degree, the importance of surveillance has been a recurring theme. Mostly I have learned about disease surveillance in regards to controlling and preventing outbreaks and epidemics. But, there are many other types of surveillance systems that monitor events in the environment and our societies to warn of potential or imminent disasters. These include storm surveillance and meteorological reports, tsunami, tornado, drought and fire warning systems as well as government organisations aimed at gathering intel about potential terrorist threats or military actions. Much like disease surveillance systems, these are geared at notifying governments, institutions, communities and individuals of potential danger so that they can take steps to prepare and protect themselves as well as their assets to minimise the damage as much as possible.<br />
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For example, the identification and tracking of a tropical cyclone by a satellite allows those monitoring the system to inform governments, institutions (such as hospitals and schools), communities, businesses and individuals about where the storm might hit, how powerful it will be and how long it might last. This information can be used to predict the amount of damage the storm may cause and highlight areas or sites that may be particularly vulnerable to the impact. When provided in a timely and accurate manner, this information is invaluable to preparation efforts. Local hospitals and schools as well as police and fire departments can begin evacuation and other emergency protocols to limit the loss of life, organise refuge centres for those who cannot leave and instruct people on how they should proceed to keep themselves and their families safe. Local departments charged with carrying out storm protocols can also take steps to minimise structural damage like raising levees or preparing storm drainage systems. Government bodies can also use the information to prepare and/or dispatch coast guard and military forces should their services be required.<br />
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Unfortunately, early warning systems do not always result in swift and appropriate action on behalf of all parties. Some individuals choose to stay at home to weather the storm, either because they are too afraid to leave, they do not want to leave their pets behind, they doubt the storm will be too bad or they worry their possessions will be stolen by looters. When hurricane Sandy hit the eastern United States (classified as a tropical storm), many of the fatalities consisted of elderly people who had not left their homes to get to a safer area and as a result drowned in their homes (Hess 2012). Of course, in cases like that you often get people who do not believe the storm will actually be such a big deal. After all, the eastern U.S, particularly in the northern areas, is not accustomed to being hit with those kinds of storms so it can be difficult for people to take the warnings seriously. There have also been a number of false alarms, when authorities warned of a storm that would cause a great deal of damage but ultimately changed course or deteriorated into something far less menacing. It is therefore unsurprising that people begin to believe that the authorities are "crying storm" when there really won't be anything to worry about. Still, New York, resilient as ever, was up and running within days while other areas took much longer to get back on their feet. The truth is that the U.S. cannot really function unless New York is functioning. This makes the city a top priority for a large number of stakeholders, from the many international businesses trading out of New York, to the government that benefits greatly from the revenue and tourism in the city, to the 8 million residents that call it home (United States Census Bureau 2014). Many of these stakeholders have endless amounts of money and access to considerable resources, so it is not at all surprising that the necessary investments were made to get the city back on its feet as soon as possible.<br />
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Hurricane Katrina on the other hand, was quite a different story. The authorities were grossly unprepared for the severity of the damage despite the early warnings and after five days, there were still people stuck in the Superdome taking refuge. The contrast between the two different responses is stark. The areas that suffered the most damage from hurricane Katrina had a high percentage of poor African Americans. While New Orleans is a popular tourist location in the U.S., it would not bring in anywhere near the revenue that New York does and as far as stakeholders go, there were certainly far fewer with so much access to resources, save for federal government. There was nowhere near the same amount of pressure applied to authorities to protect and restore New Orleans as there was to help New York, at least not from powerful people and businesses. New Orleans just was not as important, or seemingly important at all judging by the accounts and reports of the response. For example, the federal and state authorities were unresponsive the day the storm hit and knew very little of what was going on in New Orleans including the failed levees and the use of the Convention Centre as a shelter for thousands of people (Moynihan 2012). Ultimately, FEMA and the state departments did help, but were quite late in doing so and appeared to have very poor coordination and leadership at times (Moynihan 2012). For example, the uncertainty regarding which government was responsible for the collection of bodies led to human remains being left in the streets for days (Moynihan 2012). Hundreds of other national and international volunteer organisations such as the Red Cross took part in the relief efforts as well, thus becoming stakeholders (Moynihan 2012). The people working and living in New Orleans were undeniably the most affected stakeholders with 1,800 killed and thousands left without shelter or belongings (Moynihan 2012). Ultimately, the situation that arose during hurricane Katrina seemed closer to what would happen during a disaster in a developing nation as opposed to what would be expected in the most powerful country in the world.<br />
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Depending on the developing nation affected by a storm, the damage could be more or less severe. Cuba for example, has excellent storm preparedness for a number of reasons. For starters, it sees severe storms far more regularly than many developed nations do, so adequate preparation is a necessity to minimise frequent and heavy losses. It is also important to consider the emphasis and investment made by the communities, authorities and government on disaster planning, preparation and awareness. Other developing nations are not so fortunate. Those without functioning or willing governments are unlikely to have efficient and resilient systems or plans in place.<br />
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The stakeholders in a developing country would be much the same as those in a developed country with the exception of a few differences. A developing country without a government or overseeing body would be lacking that very important stakeholder. The nation may also have a high presence of NGOs and other aid organisations, which could be very different to the circumstances in a developed nation. Finally, the locals residing in the area would probably have very limited resources at their disposal.<br />
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My final thoughts are that while surveillance is crucial to disaster management, it serves no purpose without appropriate action.<br />
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References:<br />
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Hess, WG 2012, <i>The People Who Were Killed By Hurricane Sandy</i>, Wordpress, viewed 19 December 2014, <http://whitneyhess.com/blog/2012/11/05/the-people-who-were-killed-by-hurricane-sandy/>.<br />
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Moynihan, DP 2012, 'Case Study: The Response to Hurricane Katrina', in International Risk Governance Council (IRGC), <i>Risk Governance Deficits: An analysis and illustration of the most common deficits in risk governance</i>, IRGC, Geneva.<br />
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United States Census Bureau 2014, <i>New York (city) New York</i>, viewed 19 December 2014, <http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/3651000.html><br />
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Eryntravel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-29150440866791619402014-12-11T19:00:00.000-08:002015-01-17T06:54:00.130-08:00A Few More Disaster-Related Definitions<div class="MsoNormal">
The second part of the introductory pre-course material involved defining a few more disaster-related terms. Once again, the first set of definitions represents my initial understanding of the terminology, while the second set is the result of more thorough investigation.</div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Humanitarianism:</u> the philosophy of providing aid to other human beings in need.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Humanitarian assistance:</u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the action of providing help to individuals and/or communities who are unable to meet the basic necessities of life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Complex emergency:</u> an emergency that has more than one primary cause and/or complication. For example, a situation that involves both a physical emergency (such as an earthquake) and a biological emergency (such as an outbreak of an infectious disease like cholera) occurring at the same time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Refugee:</u> an individual forced to flee his or her country to escape a dangerous situation that they believe is likely to endanger their life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Political refugees seek asylum outside of their country for reasons including religious, ethnic and/or political persecution, which could lead to abuses of their human rights, enslavement or even death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Refugees may also leave their country due to economic instability or a natural disaster that has made environmental conditions in their country unlivable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Internally displaced person:</u> an individual who must leave his or her home and the area in which they live for their own safety, but remains within their country, likely in a safer area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This could occur as a result of violence in the area or a natural disaster (for example, the evacuation of people from an area impacted by a volcanic eruption to a safer locale within the same nation).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">After further reading and research, here are my revised definitions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Humanitarianism:</u> the principles and practices associated with the provision of assistance from human beings to other human beings when they are unable to meet their own basic needs and/or those of their families.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ideas and activities related to helping individuals, families and populations return to a state of self-sufficiency.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">Another definition that I found at The Sphere Project website which I quite liked was: </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: inherit;">"<u>The Humanitarian Imperative:</u> </span></span><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">that action should be taken to prevent or alleviate human suffering arising out of disaster or conflict, and that nothing should override this principle (The Sphere Project, n.d.)."</span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Found at: </span></span><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/the-humanitarian-charter/">http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/the-humanitarian-charter/</a></span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 18px;">The study guide also touched on the fact that humanitarianism is about the <b>moral imperative</b> to not only save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain people's dignity, but also to bear witness to people's lives and stories and advocate for their rights, all of which I found poignant.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Humanitarian assistance:</u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the impartial provision of aid to human beings in order to ease suffering, prevent unnecessary death, protect human rights and restore autonomy to individuals and communities over the course of a disaster as well as afterwards.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">More information about humanitarian assistance is available at: http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/data-guides/defining-humanitarian-aid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Complex emergency:</u> particularly referring to an emergency situation that is complicated by violent conflict, warfare and/or political insecurity endangering civilian populations as well as relief workers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Refugee:</u> a person who is forced or driven to seek refuge outside his or her country of residence and/or nationality due to genuine and legitimate fear of religious, political or ethnic persecution and/or violence from which their government is unable or unwilling to protect them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This applies in cases where the person’s entire country or part of the country is under foreign control, subjected to hostility and/or occupation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It may also apply to people escaping the hazardous aftermath of a natural disaster. Once granted refugee status, these individuals are afforded a number of rights, including the right against refoulement (expulsion from the nation in which they have refugee status).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Internally displaced person:</u> refugees that have fled the area in which they live due to conflict, violence, violations of their human rights or a natural disaster but who have not crossed the border into another country. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">More information about internally displaced persons is available at: <a href="http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c146.html">http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c146.html</a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">My initial definitions were not that far
from reality, especially considering how little I knew about disasters to begin
with.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, they did require a bit of
fine-tuning and some more than others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
example, I was unaware that a complex emergency referred mostly to a situation
complicated by violence and not another kind of obstacle (for example, the
outbreak of an infectious disease). It was also interesting to discover that some of the official definitions have actually changed over time as the international community's views have evolved (for example, the definition of a refugee has been expanded by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) to encompass a broader range of potential life-threatening circumstances).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">Another important definition that was mentioned but not included in the activity list was:</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Asylum Seeker:</u> a person who has fled their country and who has applied to a government for refugee status but has not yet been granted or denied that status.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">References:</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">The Sphere Project, n.d., <i>The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response</i>, viewed 17 December 2014, <http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/the-humanitarian-charter/>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">Eryn</span></div>
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travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-60366570267621747922014-12-10T23:00:00.000-08:002015-01-06T11:22:23.391-08:00Disaster Response and Management: What do I Bring to the Table?When it comes to disaster management, what skills, experiences or knowledge do I have to contribute?<br />
<br />
For as long as I have wanted to take this course (which has been the better part of my master's degree), that question has haunted me. The truth is that I have no real practical skills or experiences that I believe would be useful in a disaster situation. All that I could bring to the table is some basic first aid and CPR training. I have never experienced a disaster of any kind (natural, man-made or hybrid), so I have no idea how I would respond in such a situation. Instead of reacting quickly, I might freeze, flee or have a complete emotional breakdown and be of absolutely no use to anyone. Even now, at the tail-end of my degree, I still feel that I would have very little to contribute to the aid efforts in such circumstances. In fact, before beginning to read the study guide and recommended readings for this course, my idea of what constituted a disaster was crude and fairly inaccurate, encompassing only the natural disasters that I was aware of. None of the other classes that I have taken throughout my education have specifically addressed the process of disaster management as such. The management of communicable and chronic diseases have been the topic of several of my final assignments, but never disaster relief and recovery, which I believe would have some important differences. <br />
<br />
My hope is that the completion of this course will provide me with at least a basic level of knowledge of disaster management. In reality, I imagine that no amount of reading or classroom-based discussions can entirely prepare someone for dealing with a disaster scenario, but it is a start and one has to start somewhere. For now at least, I do have one thing that I know for sure I bring to the table and that is my genuine eagerness to learn about disaster response and management.<br />
<br />
Eryn<br />
<br />
<br />travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5631140482593908591.post-22365686237639103992014-12-10T19:52:00.000-08:002015-01-17T07:01:50.978-08:00Setting the Scene: A Few Disaster-Related Definitions<div class="MsoNormal">
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To begin this blog, I would like to start with the first activity in our study guide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This activity involved defining various terms related to disaster management and I thought it would provide a good introduction to the topic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both sets of definitions are meant to represent my own understanding of what those terms signify.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the first series of definitions reflects my initial views while the second set was completed after further reading of disaster-related material.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<u><br /></u>
<u>Disaster:</u> an event that results in high levels of destruction and/or death and disability.</div>
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<u>Medical Disaster:</u> an event that results in extensive levels of death and/or disability due to a profound lack of medical resources.<br />
<br />
<u>Hazard:</u> a physical, chemical or biological danger to human beings, other living organisms and/or the environment.<br />
<br />
<u>Risk:</u> a potential danger or the level of potential danger that is present.<br />
<br />
<u>Vulnerability:</u> a specific weakness or level of weakness that could increase the likelihood of a catastrophic problem for an individual or population.<br />
<br />
<u>Resilience:</u> the capacity of an individual or population to rebound to their former state after an event that has compromised their normal way of life.<br />
<br />
<u>Adaptive Capacity:</u> the ability of an individual or population to adjust to a new way of life and return to their former levels of productivity and enjoyment after an event that has changed their normal way of functioning. </div>
<span lang="EN-US"></span><br />
The following are my reviewed descriptions of the previously defined terms...<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Disaster:</u> a situation that constitutes a catastrophic natural or man-made event that severely disrupts the normal course of activities in a population and in which the local resources or day-to-day capacity of systems are insufficient and/or incapable to counteract the effects of the event. In a disaster, the affected population requires the assistance of an external entity to avoid catastrophic loss of life, disability, impacts on society and/or destruction of the environment (natural or man-made). Disasters can occur quickly or develop slowly over time and include earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, droughts, tsunamis, storms and violent conflicts (Dunham 2014).<br />
<u><br /></u>
<u>Medical Disaster:</u> a catastrophic event that overwhelms the capacity of the local health system by leading to more casualties than it can actually manage.</div>
<br />
<u>Hazard:</u> a phenomenon that is natural, man-made or a combination of the two that presents a potential danger to the health, property and activities of humans as well as the environment. Disasters occur as a result of specific hazards and should the hazard not materialise into an occurrence, the disaster will not take place. A phenomenon that has not yet resulted in a disaster will typically not be recognised as a potential hazard (Dunham 2014).<br />
<br />
<u>Risk:</u> the probability that a detrimental occurrence will take place, whether subjective (inferred) or objective (mathematical). The concept has three aspects: (1) hazardous scenarios, (2) the probability distribution that the scenarios will occur and (3) the negative consequences of those scenarios (Dunham 2014).<br />
<br />
<b>Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability / Capacity</b> (or level or preparedness)<br />
<br />
(Dunham 2014)<br />
<br />
<u>Vulnerability:</u> the weakness, or sensitivity of a human being or population to illness, injury or damage (Dunham 2014). It could also apply to the weaknesses of the environment.<br />
<br />
<u>Resilience:</u> the ability of an individual, population or system to be flexible or adaptable and to absorb the impacts of a negative event. It may also refer to the ability to rebound from the effects of a negative event. It could be a natural or man-made capacity (for example, storm preparedness engineering in a city). The more resilient an individual or population, the less vulnerable it is (Dunham 2014).<br />
<span lang="EN-US"></span><br />
<u>Adaptive Capacity:</u> the ability of a population and/or system to rebound or adapt successfully to a state that was better than before when faced with the occurrence of a negative event. The capability to change characteristics to cope better with real or anticipated adverse impacts (Dunham 2014).<br />
<br />
My initial definitions were fairly rudimentary and upon further examination, I believe that I have a significant amount of work to do to understand the intricacies of disaster management. For example, I had never given much thought to the fact that a disaster is different to an emergency in that a disaster necessitates outside help. However, I had come across the calculation for risk before in other classes, so I was familiar with that. Hopefully I am up to the challenge that this course and the subject matter present.<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Dunham J 2014, <i>Health Aspects of Disaster</i>, Course study guide, University of Queensland, Brisbane.<br />
<br />
Eryn</div>
travel addicthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04424202524465105479noreply@blogger.com0